Annotated Atlatl Bibliography

Annotated Atlatl Bibliography

John Whittaker

2/2004

Introduction

I have accumulated this bibliography over the last few years, making notes for my own uses. Since I have access to some obscure articles, I thought it might be useful to put this information where others, especially beginners, can get at it. Comments in brackets [ ] are my own comments, opinions, and critiques, and not everyone will agree with them. The thoroughness of the annotation varies depending on when I read the piece and what my interests were at the time. Numerous articles from atlatl newsletters describing contests and scores are not included. There are a few peripheral items, relating to topics like the dating of the introduction of the bow, projectile points, and skeletal anatomy. The serious researcher should find Lorenz Bruechert’s (2000) bibliography, which is more complete in some areas, but less annotated than mine.

The articles use a variety of measurements. Some useful conversions:

1”=2.54 cm 1’=30.48 cm 1 yard = .9144 m 1 m = 3.28 feet (3’ 3 1/3”)

1 mile = 1.609 km 1 km = .622 miles

1 oz = 31.103 gm or 480 grains 1 grain = .0648 gm or .002 oz

1 gram = 15.43 grains or .032 oz

Ahler, Stanley A. and Phil R. Geib

2002 Why Flute? Folsom Point Design and Adaptation. Journal of Archaeological Science 27:799-820.

Folsom fluting produces a very thin point that can be hafted in a split haft with only leading edge and tip exposed, allowing maximum penetration but controlling breakage so that only the tip breaks off and the point can be resharpened and reused many times. Probably an adaptation to mobile bison hunting where a reliable, maintainable weapon is needed, but where suitable material is not always available. Assumes used with atlatl. Summarizes previous ideas on fluting, proposes a convincing hafting model.

Akerman, Kim, Richard Fullager, and Annelou van Gijn x

2002 Weapons and wunan: production, function, and exchange of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2002 (1): 13-42.

NW Australia, bifacial pressure flaked points. Microscopic residues and use-wear. Change in production, design, function, and distribution through time. See lithic bibliography.

Oral tales: culture hero Tjungkun made 1^st spearthrower from limb with branch stub (later became long slender form with lashed on hook). Wodoi made 1^st stone tipped spears to throw with them. Other myths, intro of pressure flaking by blanket lizard, dentate points made by nightjar etc. Kimberley and other points often used to tip long compound spears, also as knives, and for exchange.

Phragmites for shafts of composite spears. Point in resin blob on foreshaft, usually < 4 cm long. Spears long and light, av 170 gm, “low mass, high velocity with point that disengaged from the shaft to promote bleeding.” [only light in comp to other Aust spears].

Allely, Steve

1992 Great Basin Atlatls: Notes from the N.W. Corner. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 1(4): 48‑56.

Describes several atlatls of different types. [Good illustrations, one of the

best sources to use replicating different styles.] Includes good drawings of Roaring Springs, Nicolarson Cave, Plush Cave, and McClure atlatls.

Alva, Walter, and Christopher B. Donnan

1994 Royal Tombs of Sipan. Los Angeles: University of California.

Moche, Peru, fabulously wealthy tomb.

P 175 drawing of spear thrower: straight rod with cast copper hook in form of animal head, hooked handle in form of human head, geometric decoration on shaft. A second atlatl, not shown, had wooden handle carved with bird head. P 127, procession of warriors with clubs, spears, and atlatls (on pot), but mostly shown using clubs or maces and slings in combat.

Ames, Kenneth N. and Herbert D. G. Maschner

1999 Peoples of the Northwest Coast: Their Archaeology and Prehistory. London: Thames and Hudson.

P 236 clear drawing of the Skagit atlatl carving. See Fladmark et al 1987.

[However, no other mention of atlatls, despite chapter on warfare and discussion of weapons.]

Angel, J. Lawrence

1966 Early Skeletons from Tranquility, California. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 2(1).

Early Horizon [Archaic] burials with mano/metate, mortar/pestle, Olivella beads etc, but possible association with extinct bison, horse, camel. [Angel accepts association, but artifacts and stratigraphic problems suggest post-Pleistocene date, no C14 date.]

Hard life indicated by skeletons of 30 individs, 3M, 4F complete.

p3: Diagnoses "atlatl elbow": 6 of 13 individs show arthritis of elbow "usually including eburnation after friction removal of head of cartilage over capitulum, the "ball" against which concave upper surface of head of radius rubs during flexion and extension of elbow and pronation and supination of hand. What repeated and stressful action combines those movements? One thinks at once of baseball pitcher or javelin thrower, except that this equally strains shoulder and clavicular joints." Atlatl allows throw without extending and abducting shoulder, but puts extra stress on arm muscles and elbow. [Important article, but incorrect understanding of atlatl throwing motion.]

Anonymous

1989 Unusual Spearthrowers from Key Marco on the Gulf Coast of Florida. The Atlatl 2(1):4-5.

Two of Cushing's finds described briefly, line drawings. [Not enough info and no proper reference]

Anonymous

1990 World's Record Atlatl Throw. The Atlatl 3(1):6

Bill Holladay at Rabbit Stick 1989: primitive equipment - 380'5",

open equipment - 428'6".

Baker, W. E. and A. V. Kidder

1937 A Spear Thrower from Oklahoma. American Antiquity 3(1): 51-52.

Spear thrower predates bows - SW evidence.

Cave find from Cimarron R., NW of Boise City.

Distal fragment of Basketmaker type, groove, flush hook, good illustration.

Associated sandals, corn, no pottery, slotted foreshaft.

Bandi, H. G.

1988 Mis bas et non defecation. Nouvelle interpretation de trois propulseurs magdaleniens sur de bases zoologiques, ethnologiques et symboliques. Espacio, tiempo y forma, serie I, Prehistoria t.1 :133-147.

[Giving birth and not defecation : New interpretation of three magdalenian spearthrowers on the basis of zoology, ethnology, and symbology.] See Demoulin 2002.

Baugh, Dick o

1986 A Note on Indian Bow Making, or the Secrets of Sinew Revealed. Flintknapping Digest 3(1): 10-12.

Experiments with sinew – says it shrinks 3%.

Baugh, Dick o

1994 A Note on Indian Bow Making, or the Secrets of Sinew Revealed. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 7(1):68-69.

Experiments with sinew and sinew backings.

Baugh, Richard A.

1998 Atlatl Dynamics. Lithic Technology 32(1):31-41.

[Possibly useful, but explanations of physics are so poor that it is hard to evaluate the model unless you have strong physics background. I don't.]

Video digitizer and mathematical model used to predict velocity of darts under given conditions. - horizontal force, wrist torque, mass of hand, radius of gyration, weight of dart, length of atlatl. Simpler model than Cotterell and Kamminga 1989.

Hand-thrown dart has short lever action (hand+wrist) while atlatl is much longer lever.

Conclusions: Atlatl length (between .3-.75m) has little effect on velocity, although optimum length was .45 m. Adding a weight to atlatl can increase velocity up to 2.7%, but if atlatl at optimum length, always loses velocity. Heavy darts do better with short atlatls. Hand thrown dart (2 different weights) has 62-75% kinetic energy of same thrown by atlatl. Flexible atlatl transfers more energy to dart - their atlatl stored ca. 6.9% of dart's kinetic energy - more flex would be even better. Dart flex contributes little energy to forward motion, is mostly vibrational, but important in getting straight throw despite curving motion of atlatl. [Are differences of 3-7% real or random? I am dubious about effects of both atlatl weights and flex, but he’s right that dart flex adds little energy.]

Baugh, Dick

2001 Arrow Straightening. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 22:51-52.

Use of heat and grooved steatite shaft straightener.

Baugh, Richard A.

2002 The Tuning of Atlatl Darts. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 23:89-91.

Force is not applied in a straight line, so dart must flex. If end kicks up, dart is too limber, if down, too stiff. Test before fletching. The harder you throw, the stiffer the dart should be. Fairly wide range is acceptable; well-tuned dart works for hard to moderate throw but kicks down for easy toss. Periodicity of dart vibration must match distance/time of throw. Flex of atlatl has little effect on “tuning” and flex of atlatl or dart contributes almost no energy to throw.

Baugh, Dick

2002 Atlatl Flexibility Analysis Via Computer Modeling. accessed 7/02 on http://www.primitiveways.com/pt-atlatlflex.html.

“Extravagant claims made for increased dart velocity with flexible atlatl.” Uses computer model to show that to get 11% increase in kinetic energy, need to deflect the tip of the atlatl ca. 10 cm. [Possible with some very flexible atlatls.]

Baugh, Richard A.

2003 Dynamics of Spear Throwing. American Journal of Physics 71 (4): 345-350.

Atlatl is a lever, operating principle is “Wrist torque applied to the length of the atlatl allows wrist rotation to increase the velocity of the dart.” Simple computer model to predict velocity of dart, affected by mass of dart and length and mass of atlatl. Horizontal force and wrist torque versus hand position derived from video record of throws; two other variables are hand mass and hand radius of gyration. Some horizontal force applied by hand, but most force from wrist rotation of the lever arm formed by atlatl. Spear, ball and atlatl throws are all the same except for the length of this lever. Can model a flexible atlatl by inserting a massless spring in model between hook and dart.

Model results: Atlatl length for max velocity is shorter than most actual use, but this may be because model assumes that human effort is not affected by mass of atlatl, or difference in velocity from atlatl length may be too small to be perceptible. Atlatl weights reduce velocity slightly, more as they are larger and further from hand. [His graph suggests up to 30% decrease in velocity with 120 gm wt at 80% of distance from hand.] Flexible atlatl should increase velocity. [But seems to have less effect than weights, maybe 12% increase. Also, his model does not take account of the dart flex, and he uses a range of spring models “representing actual practice” – but nowhere is there evidence that he actually measured atlatl flex.]

[I have a hard time evaluating the mathematical model, but the results make sense. We need more of this kind of work.]

Becker, Lou

1992 Atlatl Boar Hunt. The Atlatl 5(3):1-5.

Large darts - 160-195 gm, steel broadheads, > 1 m penetration in boar at 15-20 m.

Becker, Lou

1995 Atlatl and Primitive Self-Bow Boar Hunt 1995. The Atlatl 8(3):7-8

Hunt story, no lessons.

Becker, Lou

1995 Care and Feeding of Wooden Atlatl Darts. The Atlatl 8(2):1-2

Favors poplar, birch woods. Target = 117 gm, hunting = 259 gm, fletched with 3 or 4 feathers 6.5-7.5 inches long. Explains straightening darts by "stroking" with a hook.

Becker, Lou

1999 Let's Excercise those "Atlatl" Muscles. The Atlatl 12(1):4-5.

Simple excercises with spring cable set.

Becker, Lou

2001 Hunting Rough Fish with the Ancient Atlatl. The Atlatl 14(2):12-13.

2002 Hunting Rough Fish with the Ancient Atlatl. The Cast Spring 2002:15-16.

Michigan carp fishing. Heavy dart (190 gm), prefers banks and wading to boat.

Becker, Lou

2001 Atlatl Rough Fish Hunting Equipment. The Atlatl 14(3):10.

Prefers wood or fiberglass darts, hand held reel, gives instructions for making reel.

Berg, Robert S.

1995 A Wild Boar Hunt at Cold Brook: An Eolithic Adventure. Chips 7(3):4-5.

1996 A Wild Boar Hunt at Cold Brook: A Stone Age Adventure. The Atlatl 9(1):1-2

Same short account of killing boar with atlatl and dart.

Berg, Bob

2001 Aztec Atlatl Battle. Thunderbird Atlatl Webpage (http://www.thunderbirdatlatl.com/) accessed 10/11/01.

Rules for a team game.

Berg, Bob

2001 Benefits of Atlatl Weights. . Thunderbird Atlatl Webpage (http://www.thunderbirdatlatl.com/) accessed 10/11/01.

Flex of atlatl and dart has little effect because you can’t get out more energy than you put in. Weights help accuracy only. Weight closer to distal end is less efficient.

Berg, Bob

2002 The Atlatl Hunt that Got Weird or Blunt Trauma. The Atlatl 15(2):12

Bob lent his atlatl, killed deer with a rock.

Berg, Bob

2002 Atlatl Long Shots and Primal Instinct. The Atlatl 15(1):8

Hunting fallow deer, two long shots, 40-55 yards. Doug Majorsky only wounded the deer because dart was too light (3 1/2 oz) and stone point too loose. Berg killed his, gear not specified [but presumably stone tip].

Berg, Bob

2003 Fishing with Atlatls and Harpoons. The Cast Spring 2003:15.

Carp and gar, using night lights, harpoon tips, line on darts. Photos of tackle and catch.

Bergman, Christopher A. and Edward McEwen o

1997 Sinew-reinforced and composite bows: Technology, function, and social implications. In Projectile Technology. H. Knecht, ed., pp. 143-160. Plenum Press: NY.

Summarizes bow types; discusses technology and manufacture and mechanics of composite bows, as still made in Mongolia.

Bergman, C. A., E. McEwen, and R. Miller

1988 Experimental Archery: Projectile Velocities and Comparison of Bow Performances. Antiquity 62 (237): 658-670.

Bow developed end of Upper Paleolithic, earliest examples are Mesolithic, earliest composit bows 3^rd millennium BC in Asia. Experimental bow comparisons should use correct reproductions of old bows and arrows proper to each bow. Velocity is used as measure of comparison.

Arrow velocities achieved were 30-60 mps from a variety of self and composite bows. Compared to 195 gm, 152 cm dart thrown with replica Basketmaker atlatl at 23 mps.

Berndt, Ronald, editor

1964 Australian Aboriginal Art Ronald Berndt, pp. 44-59. The Macmillan Company, New York.

Includes pictures of spearthrowers, see Strehlow 1964, plate of pictograph hunter attacking x-ray style kangaroo with odd-looking spear thrower, plate of incised Central and Western art including spearthrower, plate of spears and painted flat lathe spearthrowers from Arnhem Land (Groote Eylandt and Yirrkalla).

Berndt, R. M. and C. Berndt s

1970 Man, Land, and Myth in North Australia: the Gunwinggu People. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.

Creation myth: “Ngalgulerg (a mythical woman) gave us women the digging stick and the basket we hang from our foreheads, and Gulubar Kangaroo gave men the spear-thrower.” [Not a good move for the Kangaroo!]

Bettinger, Robert L. and Jelmer Eerkens

1999 Point Typologies, Cultural Transmission, and the Spread of Bow-and-Arrow Technology in the Prehistoric Great Basin. American Antiquity 64(2):231-242.

Great Basin transition to small points (= bow and arrow) ca. 1350 B.P.

Two areas anomalous: 1) central NV lots light pts that should be darts - probably because of resharpening limited material. 2) E. CA light pts with base/neck too wide for arrow. Suggests different modes of transmission: 1 = "indirect bias" copy whole complex at once, vs 2 = "guided variation" more individualistic copying with experimentation, perhaps because of less contact between cultures.

Bingham, Paul M.

2000 Human Evolution and Human History: A Complete Theory. Evolutionary Anthropology 9(6):248-257.

The “inevitable logic of death from a distance:” humans can throw, which means that a group can enforce its self interest, and interest of individuals in it, at low risk to any member, because many can attack one “cheater” without direct combat. As a result, language, ethics, brain size etc all possible. Historically, increasingly effective distance weapons make possible larger social groups. Example: change from atlatl to bow and arrow in N. America allowed complexity and large populations. [Suffers from the weaknesses of all single-cause, overgeneralized theories – many specifics don’t really fit all that well.]

Bindon, P., Raynal, J.P., and Sonneville‑Bordes, D.

1987 Sagaies en bois d'Australie occidentale: fabrication, fixation,

fonctions. [Wooden Spear Points from Western Australia : Manufacture, Attachment, Functions.] In Le Main et l'Outil: Manches et emmanchements prehistoriques. D. Stordeur ed., pp 103‑116. Lyon: Maison de l'Orient.

Small beveled wooden points currently made in Wiluna area can be either spear barbs or spear-thrower hooks on Western Desert woomera type atlatl, and resemble bone points from Upper Paleolithic Europe.

Bird, George

1985 The Atl-atl or Spear Throwing Stick. The Artifact 23(3):7-18. El Paso Archaeological Society.

Personal meanings of atlatl, describes basic manufacture, woods, finds no difference with weights, likes short dart 2x as long as atlatl

[Over simple and impressionistic, nothing new, but ok]

Birkett, Courtney

1999 Lengths Not To Go To in Atlatls. The Atlatl 12(1):3.

Reports her experiment with different lengths of atlatl: distance increases with longer atlatl, but beyond 2.5' gets too clumsy.

Bittmann, Bente, and Juan R. Munizaga

1984 Comments on a Double Mummy Containing a Spear Thrower, in the "Anke Nielsen Collection", Iquique, Northern Chile. Indiana 9:383-419. (Berlin)

Claims Guinness record of 638' 8" (209.53 m), but also 660'3" and 699' witnessed, personal best (9/93) 727' (238.52 m) [non-primitive equipment]

Brian, Wayne

1992 Crashing the Barrier. The Atlatl 5(2):7-8.

Annecdote of record throw, no useful info

Bridges, Patricia S.

1989 Changes in Activities with the Shift to Agriculture in the Southeastern United States. Current Anthropology 30(3):385-394.

Skeletal info from Archaic and Mississippian burials in Pickwick Basin, Alabama.

Longbone shaft cross-sections reflect stresses.

Miss. have overall greater shaft circumference = greater stresses/workload in agricultural population. Males more change in arms than legs, females more overall, suggests females took on more new agricultural tasks. Female Miss. stronger and more symetrical arms = mortar and pestle corn grinding. Male Miss. arms more symetrical, more forearm strength = change to bow and arrow from atlatl. Archaic males have higher prevalence of elbow osteoarthritis than Mississipian, but both early and late have more on right than left elbows, and early females have highest right-dominant elbow osteoarthritis. [So mixed weak support for skeletal reflection of change from atlatl to bow.]

Bridges, Patricia S.

1990 Osteological correlates of weapon use. In A Life in Science: Papers in Honor of J. Lawrence Angel, J.E. Buikstra, ed., pp. 87-98. Center for American Archaeology.

Bridges (1990) compared Archaic (atlatl using) and Mississipian (bow and arrow using) skeletal populations from northwestern Alabama. She expected to see more arthritis of elbow and shoulder (specifically arthritis in radial/humeral articulation, olecranon fossa lipping, and acromioclavicular joint porosity), and greater difference between left and right arms in both arthritic conditions and dimensions in the Archaic population, and also expected that males would be more affected in both populations than females. In fact, there were no clear patterns, and she was forced to conclude that “in this region, changes in hunting technology appear to have had a minimal impact on the physique.” While “atlatl elbow” occurred in 15 to 26% of her male specimens, it was slightly more common in females, and equally common in both periods, so “it is impossible to attribute atlatl elbow to any specific activity.”

Bridges, Patricia S.

1992 Prehistoric arthritis in the Americas. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:67-91.

Surveys arthritis in reports of 25 prehistoric Indian groups, mentions atlatl elbow and references self and others cited here. No good connection between atlatl and arthritis.

Bridges, Patricia S.

1996 Skeletal biology and behavior in ancient humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 4:112-120.

Brokensha, Peter

1987 The Pitjantjatjara and Their Crafts. The Aboriginal Arts Board, North Sydney.

Ethnography mostly written in 1970s, updated 1980s, some old photos. Rifles have replaced spearthrower, but old men retain theirs for fighting. Men make all weapons and sacred boards, women wooden bowls and animal carvings. Spearthrowers are of woomera scoop type, called “miru.” Thin and flexible [those I have handled are not really] 87 cm long, 8.6 wide, 450 gm, made of mulga wood. Lashed-on hook, spinefex gum handle with inset adze flake. Reports from 1800s show same form. Cites old reports of “accuracy as good or better than average shot with a rifle up to 60 yards.” Photos of manufacture 1975 with steel tools, takes about 10 hours, can sell (tourist market) for $8. Hunting spear was compound with broad wood blade with a barb lashed on it. Total length 2.7 m, weight 370 gm [huge!]. Manufacture of spinifex gum described.

Brown, James

1996 The Spiro Ceremonial Center: The Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, volume 2. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Pp. 465-66. In both looted material and controlled excavation, specimens of boatstones, bannerstones, and bar atlatl weights. Most such appear in the area before 500 A.D., but at Spiro they are in burial contexts of the Evans Phase (1000-1100), at a time when bow and arrow are represented by many small arrow points. Three boatstones are animal effigies, one apparently a locust or cicada, one a double-headed turtle, one a lizard. Bar weight of quartz crystal. Six to eight butterfly, pick, and hourglass bannerstones “attributed to the site” from looter collections. Would be out of normal chronological place, probably secondary use as ornaments. [Hamilton 1952 illustrates more of these artifacts, and an atlatl is depicted on a shell cup in Phillips and Brown 1975 plate 9.]

Brown, Jeffrey L.

1967 The Use of Atlatl Weights: A Suggestion. Southwestern Lore 32(4): 84-85.

Mechanical principles (atlatl as lever) suggest that weight decreases efficiency by adding inertia, but also adds angular momentum which increases stability of throwing arc and thus accuracy.

Browne, Jim

1938 Antiquity of the Bow. American Antiquity 3(4): 358-359.

Precursor to Browne 1940, disputes Baker + Kidder 1937 that bow relatively recent, Folsom points "made for efficient bow and arrow shooting"

Browne, Jim

1940 Projectile Points. American Antiquity 5 (3): 209‑213.

Size of points is not a good marker for dating "pre-bow" - Pt 87 mm long, 37 wide on arrow still shoots ‑ many "too large" pts actually ok for bow and arrow.

Experiments with self bow and Basketmaker type atlatl: "Any close degree of accuracy is impossible with atlatl and spear." (uses overhead sweep, full extension) 6 mo practice "can't hit buffalo 1 out of 10 at 30 yards." Bow much more accurate. Dart greater penetration than arrow with same pt. Maximum atlatl throw 81 yards. [I wonder why his accuracy was so poor with atlatl?]

Bruechert, Lorenz W.

1996 The Bannerstone: A Continuing Enigma. The Atlatl 9(2):1-3.

104 specimens, 3 main types, weights range 30-300 gm, distribution mostly Columbian and Fraser Rivers, steatite, felsite, limestone, galena.

Type 1: dome with flat sides + flat or concave base, drilled through sides, one zoomorphic

Type 2: elongate "boatstone" with flat base, notched at ends

Type 3: most common, short, globular, notched across center

Dates est 2500-600 BP

Some found in pairs, mixed types, one assoc with copper bead, most probably in cremation burials.

Butler, William B.

1975 The Atlatl: The Physics of Function and Performance. Plains Anthropologist 20 (68): 105‑110.

Counters Howard 1974 – Atlatl is used as lever, motion extends above head to length of arm and atlatl. Uses a mathematical model, reanalyzes Howard’s distance figures for velocity and momentum [did he actually try it? ‑ not mentioned, I expect not].

Butler, William B.

1977 Atlatl Functions, Fancy, Flex, and Fun. A Reply to Howard. Plains Anthropologist 22(76 pt 1): 161‑162.

Reiterates rotational view, suggests experiment with dart held parallel to

shaft to prove impossibility [but doesn't do it], mentions possibility

of flexing atlatl analog to spinning rod.

Butler, William B.

1979 The Wood Projectile Point Penetration Study. In Megafauna Punchers’ Review Vol 1 No. 1, edited by Bruce Rippeteau.

Spoof journal title of informal report on butchery experiments with circus elephant “Margie” in Denver, June 1979. Includes butchery account by Rippeteau, Clovis thrusting spear experiment by Bruce Huckell. Other participants included B. Bradley, M. Wormington, G. Frison.

Butler made 2 darts of pine dowel, 122 cm long, 92 and 99 gm, apparently unfletched, with sharpened ends, one fire-hardened. Penetration poor, only 3-7 cm when thrown from 3-4 m away into belly skin. Suggests need heavier darts and small diameter sharp points.

[Very primitive experiment with poor equipment, doesn’t seem Butler was very experienced with practical atlatl use at this time either.]

Cabaraux, Anne-Francoise

2002 Why Do They Throw? The Atlatl 15(4):15

Short profiles of Jacques Pernaud, Uli Weigel, Russell Richard, Pascal Chavaux.

Cady, Willoughby M.

1949 Remarks on the Weighted Atlatl. The Masterkey 23(2):59-60.

As arm is straightened horizontally, atlatl is vertical and dart departing. Hook travels faster than weight, so “momentum of weight keeps it on its forward way and assures that the dart moves faster than the weight.” Optimum position should be 36-45% of distance from handle to hook [but reasoning not given].

Cahill, Tim

1987 Perfecting Stone Age Technology: The Atlatl, A Great Leap Backward. Mother Earth News, July, 1987. Accessed 2/2002 BPS Engineering web page http://www.atlatl.com.

Bob Perkins and Paul Leininger, engineering students at Montana State U., “whose work will revolutionize archaeological thinking about atlatls.” The “Mammoth Hunter” is first working commercial atlatl, have sold about 75 of them. Explains theories that need flexible atlatl and dart, weight tunes them. “You actually launch a wave down the dart. It reaches the end and begins to travel back. Meanwhile the atlatl bends back and stores tension. At the point of launch, the waves from the atlatl and the dart should cancel one another and turn into acceleration. The dart should be stretched out to its full length as the atlatl is releasing its stored tension. A weight will bring these waves into phase…it’s a timing device.” [Good explanation, but theory is incorrect because neither atlatl nor dart oscilates before throw, they merely bend.] At 1985 5^th World’s Open Atlatl Context, only 2 out of 50 competitors used flexible darts. [Check that – hard to believe since rigid darts don’t generally work at all.] Perkins and Leininger claiming to have popularized flexible dart 1985 and winning in 1986.

Cahill, Tim

1998 What About Atlatl Bob? Outside 23(12):55-60. (December 1998)

Facetious account of Bob Perkins and his encounters with atlatls and primitive skills. [Atlatls not very well described for public audience.]

Callahan, Errett

1994 A Mammoth Undertaking. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 1(7):23-39.

“The Ginsburg experiment” – butchering circus elephant with Stanford, Bonnichsen, Morlan, G. Haynes in 1978. Focus here on spear tests to examine hafting and basal ends of Clovis points. A few hand throws – penetration only to point hafting. Most throws with simple stick atlatl, unweighted – penetration half depth of chest cavity. Concludes atlatl necessary to kill elephant with Clovis weaponry. Variety of points and haftings tried, some illustrated. Deep slot, tapered distal end on foreshaft as wide as point base, not just flute, seems to work best. Penetration usually ends with foreshaft if shaft is larger diameter, so long foreshafts best. Best results with long flexible unfletched spear. [Useful discussion and illustration of hafting alternatives, unfortunately he never did the detailed evaluation of the alternatives that was planned.]

Campbell, Paul D.

1999 Survival Skills of Native California. Gibbs Smith Publisher, Salt Lake City.

Covers all sorts of stuff in detail. Chapter on atlatls and darts pp. 307-319. Good illustrations of several ancient atlatl specimens, some male hooks on round shaft with single finger loop, others flat board with double finger notches. Late survival in Baja California. Dimensions for some archaeological dart shafts given.

Cattelain, Pierre

1989 Un crochet de propulseur Solutreen de la Grotte de Combe-Sauniere 1 (Dordogne).[A Solutrean Spear Thrower Hook from the Cave of Combe-Sauniere 1.] Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise 86(7):213-216.

Short distal end piece with male hook, made of reindeer antler tine. Solutrean levels, associated with shouldered points. Decorated with a few lines. On tine, so originally short. Similar specimens beveled to attach to atlatl, tried experimentally. [If context correct, earliest spear thrower find]

Cattelain, Pierre and Claire Bellier

2002 La Chasse dans la Prehistoire: du Paleolithique au Neolithique en Europe…et ailleurs. (Hunting in Prehistory: from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic in Europe… and beyond.) Guides Archeologiques du Malgre-Tout, CEDARC, Treignes, Belgium.

Booklet, focus on artifactual evidence, well illustrated with line drawings and a few color photos, lots of pictures of European stone and bone dart points, some Upper Paleolithic and ethnographic spear throwers. Also spears, bows, boomerangs, etc.

Cattelain, Pierre, and Rieu, Jean-Luc

2002 Le Propulseur. Musee de Malgre-Tout, Treignes, Belgium.

Glossy color pamphlet, 6 pages. Well illustrated basics of Old World archaeology and ethnography of atlatl.

Chatters, James C.

2001 Ancient Encounters: Kennewick Man and the First Americans. Simon and Schuster, New York.

First half covers the disgusting story of how the Corps of Engineers and Indian activists tried to destroy Kennewick and prevent scientific study. Second half describes and interprets the find in light of other early skeletons (they are physically different from Archaic and later Indians) and presents Chatters’ theories of the peopling of the Americas.

Kennewick (adult male skeleton, Washington state, C14 dates 8,410 + 60 B.P. = 7330-7580 BC calibrated) has a Cascade type projectile point in healed wound in his right hip. Angle suggests that he tried to dodge, so probably not accidental. Depth suggests high velocity, probably atlatl.

Chauvaux, Pascal

2003 European Prehistoric Atlatls Inventory Trial. The Cast Spring 2003:12.

Map showing location of European atlatl finds with photos of specimens.

Christenson, Andrew L.

1986 Projectile Point Size and Projectile Aerodynamics ‑ An Exploratory Study.

Plains Anthropologist 31 (112): 109‑128.

Useful theoretical consideration of variety of factors. [Includes my favorite jargon: points are part of "complex projectile delivery systems."]

Churchill, Steven E.

2002 Of Assegais and Bayonets: Reconstructing Prehistoric Spear Use. Evolutionary Anthropology 11:185-186.

[Responding to Kortlandt 2002] Assumes that thrusting spears were used underhand like bayonet based on muscular advantage, military use, and lack of ethnographic details. Ethnog suggests both overhand and underhand use, and preference for thrusting rather than throwing. Underhand thrust allows better withdrawal for multiple thrusts, and better defensive posture.

Churchill, Steven E.

2003 Experimental Evidence Concerning Spear Use in Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans. Journal of Archaeological Science 30:103-114.

Argues that Neanderthal humeri are asymmetrical, with right more robust. They are wider front to back, compared to Upper Paleolithic humeri which are rounder, consistent with (tortional) throwing loads. Neanderthal asymmetry more likely to result from thrusting spears, and the Lower and Middle Paleolithic spears so far found are large and heavy, better for thrusting than throwing. In an underhand thrust, the strong hand is at the back, and takes most of the (bending) stress.

Experiment used 8 untrained subjects thrusting. Showed assymetrical stress on trailing arm, high enough load to stimulate bone remodeling. So experiment and skeletal studies are consistent with belief that spear thrower did not appear until into the Upper Paleolithic.

[He’s probably right, but problems with his conclusions include small sample of experimental subjects, small sample of relevant prehistoric bones, and the many other assymetrical things right-handed people do with their arms.]

Clausen, Carl J., H.K. Brooks, and Al B. Wesolowsky

1975 The Early Man Site at Warm Mineral Springs, Florida. Journal of Field Archaeology 2(3):191-213.

Underwater excavations in sinkhole, human remains deposited into water-laid levels [but see Cockrell and Murphy 1978], mention of possible shell atlatl hook.

Clubb, Leni

1994 Guinness Record Holder... The Atlatl 7(1):8

Wayne Brian (Mesa AZ) modern distance record, now claims primitive record of 475'3" (144.9 m)

Cockrell, W. A. and Larry Murphy

1978 Pleistocene Man in Florida. Archaeology of Eastern North America 6:1-13.

Brief info on Warm Mineral Springs, Pleistocene sinkhole now filled with water, excavations on ledge produced flexed burial dated 10,319 B.P., earlier material below. Associated with burial is shell artifact "atlatl hook" [drawn, not

described, see Purdy 1991:197 for photo].

These layers deposited when hole was dry. [Disputed by Clausen et al. 1975 - if deposited into spring, associations not good - if good assoc in dry deposit, and correct ID of artifact, then this is a very early date for atlatl in Americas]

Coe, Joffre L.

1964 The Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 54(5).

Atlatl weights found at Doershuk (NC) site in lowest level associated with Stanly stemmed points (triangle with stem bifurcated or concave based). Mostly unfinished pick forms. Estimated date 5000 BC. At the Hardaway site, 1950s excavations in midden 28 inches deep. Again, mostly pick or lunate forms, 172 unfinished and 65 finished from surface, mostly broken. One antler hook. One semilunar pick form from Stanly level, others are judged later. Only a few illustrated. At the Gaston site, small hollow oval atlatl weights [boatstones] and grooved ovals, associated with Vincent pottery. Estimated date after 500 A.D., earliest pottery, possibly bow and arrow as well.

Coggins, Clemency Chase, and Orrin C. Shane

1984 Cenote of Sacrifice: Maya Treasures from the Sacred Well at Chichen Itza. University of Texas Press, Austin.

Pictures and short descriptions of: almost complete wooden atlatl, straight, groove and hook, two finger holes with narrow in between; corner notched chert atlatl dart points, hook ends of 2 serpentine atlatls of wood, with groove and hook isolated by carving in groove, carved snake decorations, scepters with rudimentary atlatl hooks, fragment of shell finger loop carved with snakes.

[atlatl form here is straight wooden, with groove and hook, and carved or lashed on loops of shell or other material]

Cole, George S.

1972 The Bannerstone as a Spear Weight. Michigan Archaeologist 18 (1): 1‑7.

Center drilled bannerstones probably spear weight ‑ give added impact, weights

not help if on atlatl. [Nonsense!]

Comstock, Paul

1992 Throwing darts with the Baton de Commandement. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 1(4):38-42

Pierced “batons” with cord used as spear thrower. Some archaeological evidence of possibility. [Clever and plausible, needs better instructions]

Corliss, David W.

1980 Arrowpoint or Dart Point: An Uninteresting Answer to a Tiresome Question. American Antiquity 45(2):351-352.

Response to Thomas 1978. Point neck width can be a useful attribute marking temporal or cultural change whether or not it indicates anything about hafting

Cotterell, Brian, and Johan Kamminga

1990 The Mechanics of Pre‑Industrial Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Includes section on atlatl and spear mechanics with physical formulae.

Atlatl should not bend, or it is inefficient.

Spear should bend, but within predictable limits.

Atlatl weights give no mechanical advantage, heavier atlatl inefficient.

Couch, Jeffrey S., Tracy A. Stropes, and Adella B. Schroth

1999 The Effect of Projectile Point Size on Atlatl Dart Efficiency. Lithic Technology 24(1):27-37.

Point size makes no difference in throwing distance. [Weak experimental design (small sample human throws) and dubious theoretical orientation (Perkins) but conclusion correct. However human variability in throws should be expected to outweigh difference in points, and the real useful info here is the demonstration that all point sizes work about equally, so point size is not necessarily a good marker of atlatl vs bow]

Coulam, Nancy J. and Alan R. Schroedl o

2004 Late Archaic Totemism in the Greater American Southwest. American Antiquity 69(1): 41-62.

Split twig figurines, 2 types: Grand Canyon and Green River. [Represent ungulates that would have been hunted with atlatl.] Discuss ethnographic hunter-gatherer totemism, identify two types for figurines: social totemism (clan symbols) with finds in habitation sites, and increase totemism (sympathetic hunt/fertility magic) with finds in shrine caves, some pierced by twigs.

Cowan, Jay

1988 At Long Last, An Atlatl of Your Very Own. Sports Illustrated Nov 14, 1988, no pages given. Retrieved Jan 24, 1998 from the World Wide Web: http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/ but does not occur as claimed in that issue of Sports Illustrated.

Modern atlatl for experiment and sport, Leininger and Perkins featured.

Cressman, Luther S.

1944 New Information on South-Central Oregon Atlatls. The Masterkey 13(6): 169-179.

Plush Cave site described, atlatl from looter backdirt.

Simple Basketmaker type atlatl, missing its loops, groove + hook, no evidence of weight, 19mm wide, 54.5 cm long, [pictures poor] . Associated dart parts and basketry.

Cressman, Luther S. x

1977 Prehistory of the Far West: Homes of Vanished Peoples. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

p 105 “earliest archaeological record of spear-thrower” in New World is hook from Fort Rock Cave probably dating ca 8500 years ago, and 2 spurs from Five-Mile Rapids on the Columbia River, and others. Compound atlatl (attached spur) preceded simple atlatl (integral spur). Compound atlatl along W coast, associated with boatstone weights. Simple form farther east into Gt Basin. Replaced by bow around 2300 years ago in Gt Basin. Photo of McClure atlatl with stone weight, C14 dated at 1470 + 140 BP, “so fragile it hardly seems possible it could have been used.” [Last statement wrong, date is very late if accept his replacement arguments]. Long period of bow and atlatl overlap at Lovelock cave etc, suggests bow not just difused, but learned by trial and error. Mechanical principles are different.

Cressman, Luther S. and Alex D. Krieger

1940 Atlatls and Associated Artifacts from South-central Oregon. In Early Man in Oregon: Archaeological Studies in the Northern Great Basin. L.S. Cressman, H. Williams, A.D. Krieger eds, pp 16-52. University of Oregon Studies in Anthropology No 3.

2 complete atlatls and two fragments from Roaring Springs Cave.

Lower levels mostly large points, upper levels large + small points, arrows and bows and darts and atlatls apparently together [but possible mixing of deposits] .

Two atlatls together in cach, similar, one large, one small.

Both mountain mahogany, convex wide [inflexible] boards with ridge on underside, integral wood hook, deeply notched grip, no weight, painted with ochre.

L = 70 cm, 53 cm; Max W = 7 cm, 5 cm; small photographs.

Plush Cave atlatl mentioned, Basketmaker form. World distribution of atlatl types discussed. Compares RS atlatl with Lovelock Cave and BM types.

Dart shafts of cane and wood, painted. Point types discussed. World distribution of atlatls mapped and classified.

Cross, John R.

1999 “By Any Other Name…”: A Reconsideration of Middle Archaic Lithic Technology and Typology in the Northeast. In The Archaeological Northeast. M. A. Levine, K. E. Sassaman, and M. S. Nassaney, eds., pp. 57-73. Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

Technological and typological basis for Mid Archaic (ca. 8000-6000 B.P.) stemmed bifaces in the NE, Annasnappet Pond site. Stanly, Neville, Morrow Mt, and Stark points, all broad triangles with short narrow stems with concave bases, usually rhyolite. At Annasnappet Pond, associated with other lithics, full-grooved axe, winged and cylindrical atlatl weights. Oval feature with calcined skull frags, ochre, 3 Stanly/Neville pts and 1 drill, 2 winged atlatl wts, and 1 chipped slate knife perform, uncalibrated date 7570 + 150 BP. Points aligned with weights, shafts estimated at 125-135 cm long. Large pts often snapped and either half could be reworked; variants are mostly result of such. These are probably atlatl pts, and knives. Morrow Mt/Stark pts are thicker, narrower, sharp, with convex base of stem, different stone, less formal, rarely resharpened, probably thrusting spear tips.

Cundy, B. J.

1989 Formal Variation in Australian Spear and Spearthrower Technology. BAR International Series 546, Oxford.

[Actually covers only Central Australia and the northern half of the Northern Territory so some important types and variation not included. A very good study although marred by many typos and almost no illustrations of spearthrowers and spears. Probably the best source on spearthrower mechanics and physics, but the explanations are not always clear. I’ve translated into English as much as I can.]

1. Intro: Variation should be explained by technological and functional factors as well as cultural differences.

2. Technological comparison and performance: Compares to hand thrown spears. Tasmania had no spearthrower, hand thrown spears 40-70 yards, maybe up to 100m, typically spears 4m long, .6 kg. [He discounts shorter distance records as non-comparable, but these Tasmanian ones seem exaggerated, when javelin record is 98m.]

Spear thrower records: Falkenberg (1968) measured throws in Northern Territory of 90-125m, one 180m, but special gear – small reed spears. Thomson (unpub) recorded 49-105 m in Arnhem Land. Mountford (unpub) got 50-91 m. Consider 70 m as a “rule of thumb” average max distance, so not really better than hand thrown.

Accuracy is hard to compare from ethnographic accounts, but usual max accurate range 20 m. At moderate size targets, comparable accuracy to bow, but atlatl accuracy decreases more rapidly as target gets smaller or more distant. So why atlatl? Perhaps reduces necessity of learning throwing skills, i.e., it’s easier than hand throwing, both in skill and effort, freeing hunter to invest in other skills and activities. [I think he understates the improvement possible with spear thrower.]

3. Aerodynamic factors: “Vacuum model” of throw considers only gravitational and projection force, not aerodynamic factors, and predicts 45 degree angle for maximum distance throw. But drag (air friction) greatly reduces theoretical maximum. Spears unlikely to have much lift. Center of pressure must be behind center of gravity to keep straight flight, either by having most of the weight forward, or adding drag to rear of shaft, as in fletching. Most experiments suggest center of gravity should be between .25-.33 length on unfletched projectiles. Compares modern javelin, weighted and shaped to glide maximum distance but still land point first. “Range but not in-flight behavior equaled” by Australians. Palter (1977): 293 spears, center of gravity at .25-.48 length, thus many would stall if thrown for distance, but this was of secondary importance in their use.

4. Wound Ballistics: Penetration depends on motion and shape of projectile. Motion measured by kinetic energy, momentum, power, mass, and velocity, with most favoring kinetic energy. (Mass x velocity squared over 2). Because of drag from the material penetrated, heavier projectiles penetrate deeper than lighter higher velocity ones. Shape and size of missile affect drag. Surprisingly little energy is needed to penetrate skin and flesh.

5. Propulsion: Body levers in timed sequence, with slow but powerful (trunk, thighs) first, then faster but weaker joints (hands, arms), so each contributes its maximum. For light projectiles, skill (timing of muscle sequence) more important; for heavy, strength more important (e.g. baseball vs javelin). Mason (1884) and Howard (1974) use impulse model (atlatl increases time of thrust on spear). Howard’s model is unlikely on mechanical grounds, and predicts that spearthrower length is of little importance. Most analyses use lever model, seeing atlatl as lengthening arm. Atlatl is not a lever, but can be analyzed as part of lever system. [A confusing and unnecessary quibble. As subsequent discussion makes clear, atlatl and wrist do in fact act as lever and fulcrum.] Rotating short end of atlatl at wrist by applying strong force moves the long end a greater distance in the same time, thus faster, thus increasing velocity of spear. Analyzes 1970 ethnographic film of throwing. Motion is similar to conventional overhand throw, a sequence of 1) forward body motion, 2) shoulder rotation 3) arm rotation, and 4) wrist rotation [flexion]. Spearthrower increases length of resistance arm of any body lever in the same plane. If used more horizontally [side-arm], emphasizes shoulder + body rotation, if vertical, emphasizes arm and wrist. Stronger individuals may tend to use more vertically. Most of the gain in velocity is from wrist action in last .1 second of throw.

If spearthrower load is too great [too heavy, too much wind resistance] then velocity reduced. If too light, high acceleration reached at expense of power development.

Longer spear thrower increases linear velocity at tip (and spear) but increases load about the wrist faster because proportional to square of length between wrist and center of gravity of atlatl.

6) Spear and Spearthrower Articulation

At rest, atlatl weight bends wrist back, spear weight counters this, bends forward. Bannerstones may help balance, but not used in Australia.

As wrist flexes to lever spear thrower, and spear stays in line, the tail of the spear must rise, so spear must flex a distance proportional to the length of the atlatl. The flex also stores energy that can be converted into kinetic energy later, and add to spear velocity, but spear detaches from atlatl before that is complete, so some of the energy stored as flex remains, resulting in wave-like shaft vibration. If shaft does not store enough energy by flexing, it will be tipped toward the ground; too much and it may buckle.

Thrower must overcome inertia of spear and atlatl tip. Longer atlatl has higher velocity, but rapidly loses advantage because inertia is function of length squared, so doubling length quadruples inertia. Shorter atlatl, lower possible velocity, but can throw heavier spear. Different spear and atlatl combinations optimize for either high velocity with low energy (light spear), or high energy with low velocity (heavy spear). [Of course, but how then do Australians use combination of long (and heavy) atlatl with very long and heavy spear? Even with my lighter spears, their woomeras are too long for me. Tables show some spears 400-500 gms, 4 x what mine weigh.] Can make atlatl lighter as gets longer, but then need to increase rigidity because energy stored as atlatl flex will only be released at end of throw as lateral movement of spear shaft.

7) Structural relationships. 1. Positive correlation between mass of atlatl and mass of spear. 2. Inverse relation between length of atlatl and mass of spear. 3. Inverse between length and mass of atlatl. 4. If optimizing for high velocity, atlatl inertia may be reduced by concentrating mass about the wrist pivot, in which case mass and length may be positively correlated. Test on specimens from Northern Territory, 5 types of spearthrower, but can’t match individual spears to atlatls, uses sample means. Expectations generally confirmed.

8) Spear and Spearthrower forms.

Central Australian: Leaf, paddle, or scoop shaped, lashed on hook, resin lump at handle, often with inset stone flake. [What most people think of as Australian “woomera.”] Form linked to manufacture from cambium of mulga tree, and secondary uses as tray, club, musical instrument, etc. Appears inefficient – wind resistance of wide shape, but used either flat or edge-on.

Cushing, Frank H.

1895 The Arrow. The American Anthropologist 8(4):307‑349.

[Fascinating early article by one of the first experimental archaeologists.]

Arrow used before bow invented.

Study specific for general laws of man’s development. Good quotes on above, personal and individual nature of anthro, philosophy of study and need for replication. His discovery of arrowmaking. Arrows described (SW example) "Knapping" ‑ direct, indirect, pressure described. Arrow making ‑ includes straight and smooth w/stone, grooved grinder for foreshafts, wrenches. [Wild] speculations on human and arrow beginnings. Proposes development of spear thrower through some weakly documented forms of spear sling, spear palm, etc. ‑ short throwers with rope for end ‑ [some require propel spear from extreme distal end, which I doubt possible]. Springy atlatl of cliff dwellers ‑ claims his works. Reconstructs a "stringed bow crook" [combination atlatl and bow] from Zuni war paho, and "Bow crotch" [an even more absurd idea], from which derives reflex bow.

Cushing, Frank Hamilton

1897 Explorations of Ancient Key Dwellers' Remains on the Gulf Coast of Florida. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 35(153):329-448.

Describes at length the project and various remains.

Atlatls: two types - 1. Double holed, 18" long, slight curve, originally springy, with groove and spur, flared handle end. 2. Single holed, 19", more curved and thicker and wider, short groove, spur is tail of carved rabbit, handle turned down volute. Suggests that some shark-tooth "swords" were also atlatls [but hard to evaluate from his descriptions and poor drawing].

See Gilliland 1975.

Darwin, Charles

1909 Voyage of the Beagle. Harvard Classics, P. F. Collier and Son, New York.

January 12, 1836, near Bathhurst, southeast Australia: “At sunset a party of a score of the black aborigines passed by, each carrying, in their accustomed manner, a bundle of spears and other weapons. By giving the leading man a shilling, they were easily detained, and threw their spears for my amusement… In their own arts they are admirable. A cap being fixed at thirty yards distance, they transfixed it with a spear, delivered by the throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow from the bow of a practised archer.”

Davenport, J. Walker

1943 Some Experiments in the Use of the Atlatl. Bulletin of the Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society 15:30‑37.

Very accurate and powerful, not as much as bow but good (motion ‑ overhand, wrist snap to extend atlatl adds power).

Davidson, D. S.

1936 The Spearthrower in Australia. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 76(4):445-483.

In historic Pacific confined to Yap, Palau, parts of New Guinea and Australia

[His interest is in tracing diffusionary patterns]. Maybe originated in Asia, but no evidence, spread to Europe in Upper Paleolithic 20,000.

Probably not too old in Australia, but 1000s of years. But lacking in Tasmania and some parts Australia, so not fully diffused, so not too old.

All but couple possible exceptions are "male" type hooks, which need socket in spear. Hand thrown spears usually too heavy too, and some areas had elaborate carved barbs on wooden spears - reasons not to change to spearthrower.

Overlap of spear weights, but hand thrown spears generally heavier. Heavier spear with thrower needs shorter thrower.

Maps distribution: most of Aust except SE - lacking in "peripheral" areas so recent intro, slow spread. Probably from New Guinea [no evidence]. Reed spears with wooden heads only where spearthrowers, but only in part of spearthrower range, so a later development of spear to go with throwers.

Area of "negative distribution" (E-central) defined by Graebner, Radcliffe-Brown - but actually patchy presence there, little info.

Three types defined, distributions mapped, spread speculated:

1) Broad leaf-like (W + interior) wood slab, gum knob handle, often with stone adze flake inset, some with incised decoration, different regional varieties.

2) Lath-like (S + W coast, North) flat strip of wood, grip often gum, peg hook. Queensland subtype (N-E) [should be separate type, quite different], lath is vertical, not flat, no flex at all, little wind resistance, shell + gum handle, peg hook.

3) Stick-like (N + SE). N has tasseled handle, some gum handles, peg hooks, some integral carved hook, often very simple. SE types bulge or paddle-shaped.

Davis, Carl M., and James D. Keyser

1999 McKean Complex Projectile Point Typology and Function in the Pine Parklands. Plains Anthropologist 44(169):251-270.

McKean complex includes contemporary different Archaic point types, for which different functions are suggested. Duncan-Hanna points are considered to be atlatl dart points, while McKean Lanceolate and Mallory points were used on thrusting spears, thus providing an optimal weapon assemblage. Uses rock art, ethnographic, breakage, and design evidence.

DeBoer, Warren

1993 Like a Rolling Stone: The Chunkey Game and Political Organization in Eastern North America. Southeastern Archaeology 12(2):83-92.

Roll the chunkey stone, throw the pole, score by closeness to end point of stone. Gambling game related to universal N. American hoop and pole game. Data from 97 archaeological discoidals or chunkey stones from Cahokia area suggest started Late Woodland as popular game with stones found in middens and child burials, but during rise and peak of Cahokia center, stones are standardized and in burials of elite males. Suggests elite took over as symbol (sun, earth, directions, woodhenges) used to legitimate rulers, and also to control economic exchange and distraction represented by chunkey gambling. [No suggestion of atlatl association with chunkey, but could adapt well as a modern atlatl game.]

Demoulin, Emmanuel

2002 Les Faons aux Oiseaux. Le Propulseur 4/5:1-5.

[In French] Of about 100 Upper Paleolithic European spearthrowers, 7 from France represent the “fawn with birds” motif [a hornless ungulate peering backward over its shoulder at the hook, which is usually interpreted as showing a bird pecking at a fecal pellet emerging from the anus.] All are from Pyrenees and dating to the middle Magdalenian, C14 dated 15,340-13,280 BP. There are two complete (Mas d’Azil and Bedheilhac) and five partial. The facial and back markings indicate Rupicapra [Chamois], not fawns or wild sheep, although they lack the small horns of chamois. The bird interpretation has never been convincing [very true!]; the hooks actually resemble hooks on other spearthrower forms, and Bandi (1988) has convincingly argued that they represent a birth. Perforations and traces of resin suggest additional decoration.

The fragmentary specimens seem to be the same as the two whole, but the quality of representation varies, so they are not the work of one artist. The similarities here and in other Paleolithic art show strong cultural rules producing stereotyped representations. Only spearthrowers have the birthing chamois motif, and if we have 7 surviving, there must have been many.

All are male type spearthrowers, and all are carved of reindeer antler. Only Mas d’Azil is complete enough to show how a wooden handle might have been attached by three perforations, and since it is only 30 cm long, there must have been one, since ethnographic spearthrowers average around 69 cm. Replication experiments show that a lot of time was required, although with practice one gets better with stone tools. Soaking the antler in warm water makes it easier to work. Burins and other stone tools can leave a smooth finish, or the antler can be polished with fine sand or ochre, which is visible on the Bedeilhac specimen. The pieces studied are relatively heavy, around 60 gm, and perhaps helped counterbalance the spear. However, they also seem fragile, especially those with perforations separating the legs, and may have been less functional than decorative or ritual. [Strength is hard to estimate, and may not matter too much if the spear is not too heavy. Emmanuel is one of the modern French using replicas of Mas d’Azil with heavy spears. Pascal Chavaux is another, and says he has broken some throwers.]

Dickson, D. Bruce

1985 The Atlatl Assessed: A Review of Recent Anthropological Approaches to Prehistoric North American Weaponry. Bulletin of the Texas Archaeological Society 56:1-36.

[Thorough review, good references, some mistakes.]

Seems to accept theory of lengthened contact with spear rather than lever or spring.

Most experiments show weights are no help.

Atlatl survived for advantages in aquatic hunting and warfare.

Dickson, Don R.

1991 The Albertson Site: A Deeply and Clearly Stratified Ozark Bluff Shelter. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 41. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayettevill.

Lots of projectile points, one atlatl hook from Middle Archaic levels he dates 6000-5000 B.C. Short antler hook with beveled tip, mortise and tenon grooves on bottom, lashing groove across top.

Late Woodland small points mark bow and arrow around 800 A.D.

Dickson, Don R.

2002 Prehistoric Native Americans in the Ozarks. Ozark Resources and Historical Publications, Fayetteville.

p. 41 Part of a “sophisticated compound atlatl” found at Albertson Shelter in context dated 7800 + 80 BP. [apparently new dates since 1991, important because makes this one of earliest dated atlatl pieces]

p. 81 Dalton points rarely show impact fractures, so are more likely knives than dart points.

Dickson, Jim

2001 Aleut Throwing Board. The Dart: Ohio Atlatl Association Newsletter. March 2001: 4-5.

Instructions for making rigid rectangular board with inset male hook, shaped handgrip. Traditional measurements by hand size.

Dixon, James E. o

1999 Bones, Boats, and Bison : Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Argues for relatively early entry into Americas by a coastal route. Good summaries of sites and other info.

Paleoindian atlatl use attested by hooks from Warm Mineral Spring, Marmes Rockshelter, and Fort Rock Cave, and fracture patterns of points (Hutchings 1997). Crude drawing of use. Darts should have had bone foreshafts with harpoon-like head holding stone pt. Photo shows one from OH [no info on age or site, see Stanford 1996]. Similarity of Clovis hafting [a BIG leap from that poor evidence] to marine harpoons supports his coastal migration theory.

Dold, Catherine o

2003 The Neighborhood Bonebed. American Archaeology 7(2): 32-38.

Bison kill site, CO, ca. 3000 BP. Painting reconstructs hunt with atlatls. [Shown adequately, but unfortunately captioned “used prehistoric spears called atlatls”.]

Doucette, Dianna L.

2001 Decoding the Gender Bias: Inferences of Atlatls in Female Mortuary Contexts. In Gender and the Archaeology of Death, B. Arnold and N. L. Wicker eds., pp. 159-177. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

Do burial goods accurately reflect life roles of individual? Interpretations of atlatls at Indian Knoll, KY, and Annasnappet Pond, MA, both Archaic.

Indian Knoll – 6100-4500 B.P., over 1000 burials, of which 76 with atlatl components, including 13 females and 14 indeterminate. Early arguments about function of antler hooks and drilled stones: net hooks and sizers, hair ornaments, ceremonial banner stones on staffs. No gender interpretations – “it was not until these artifacts were identified as hunting tools that they became problematic as grave goods in female burials.”

Webb identified as atlatls, and checked association of parts, but did not dig much beyond body, so can’t tell if darts were with them. Webb saw as partly ceremonial because “it is hardly to be supposed that women would have had any practical use in life for an atlatl.”

Annasnappet Pond, Archaic component cremation with 2 weights aligned with 2 large points, date 7570 B.P. Pit was large, and cremation could have been offering with perished unburned individual. Sexing not possible. Atlatls may have been articulated with darts. Position of points in pit suggests 125 cm darts, shorter than most expect, and not requiring much upper body strength.

Critiques: Winters (1968) did not want to see women as atlatl users, but his interpretations are based on ethnocentric gender biases. Lots of ethnographic cases where women hunt. Atlatl makes spear throwing easy regardless of body size.

Drake, David and Jim Kjelgaard

1990 The Hunter Returns. Simon and Schuster, New York.

See Kjelgaard 1951.

Drass, Richard, and Robert Brooks

1984 A Boatstone and Atlatl Hook from Central Oklahoma. Newsletter of the Oklahoma Anthropological Society 32(2):7-10.

Found in grave with M, F, juvenile - near R arm of adult male.

Limestone weight, antler hook - Indian Knoll type.

Possibly late - site is Woodland, but bones not dated [so no reason to believe it is not earlier Archaic grave].

Dunham, Mike

2002 Art of the Ancients. The Atlatl 15(2):1-2. (Anchorage Daily News, 12/17/01).

Yukon River Yup’ik still hunting spotted seal with motorboats and “nuqat” atlatls. Flat “throw board” with finger hole, 4 foot small harpoon with feathers and ivory or brass head. Multiple boats and hunters include young folk. More effective than rifle because better recovery of seal. [A bit gee-whiz, and little atlatl detail, but ok].

Dutour, Olivier

2000 Chasse et activites physiques dans la Prehistoire: les marqueurs osseux d’activites chez l’homme fossile. Anthropologie et Prehistoire 111 : 156-165.

[Hunting and physical activity in prehistory : boney markers of activities in fossil man.]

Reviews theory, literature. Modern javelin throwing is well documented, relevant to prehistory. Three phase throw: run-up ending on right foot, tranfer of body weight from right to left foot with rotation of shoulders over hips, release and follow through. Elbow is particularly stressed, resulting in arthitic conditions of the epitrochlear muscle insertions on the inner side of the distal humerus. Archaeological example: prehistoric Saharan hunters – “Cromagnoids” from Neolithic lakeside sites with large fauna, microlithic industries, and bone harpoons. Two elbows with characteristic lesions (out of 38), suggest harpooners.

Edgar, Blake

2002 Chronicler of Ice Age Life. Archaeology 55(6):36-41.

Flattering article on Jean Auel, praising accuracy and detail of her fiction. Excerpt on atlatl use from Shelters of Stone “Holding the spear-thrower horizontally in his right hand, with his thumb and index fingers through the two front loops, he quickly slapped a spear into the groove. He slid it back so that the hook of the thrower, which also acted as a backstop, fit into the hole in the fletched butt end, and without hesitation he launched the spear. He did it so quickly, many people hardly noticed the way that the back end of the thrower raised up while he held on to the front with the aid of the loops, effectively adding the length of the spear-thrower to the length of his arm and thereby gaining the advantage of the additional leverage.”

Photo of Auel “demonstrating proper atlatl form.” [Unfortunately, she isn’t – couldn’t possibly get a good throw with elbow low, wrist forward. Maybe the photographer’s fault, but like much of her books – good story, lots of researched detail, but a bit off the mark as a depiction of prehistory. Here there’s an implausible emphasis on speed (also seen in her descriptions of slings), and it’s plainly the wrong kind of atlatl! She’s describing a SW “Basketmaker” form – late, N.American. The Upper Paleolithic spear throwers that we know had no groove, and no evidence of finger loops.]

Edge-Partington, J.

1903 Notes on the Weapons of the Dalleburra Tribe, Queensland, lately presented to the British Museum by Mr. Robert Christison. Man 3(19):37-38.

Clubs, spear thrower and spears, and boomerangs discussed briefly.

Wommera or koolbinny “straight shaft of wood with wooden peg” attached by sinew and gum. Used with light reed spears which could be thrown 300 yards. Heavy wooden spear only thrown by hand, “accurately to distance of 120 yards.” [Distances appear to be greatly exaggerated – more than current atlatl record, more than current javelin record (98 m)].

Ekholm, Gordon F.

1962 U-Shaped "Ornaments" Identified as Finger-Loops from Atlatls. American Antiquity 28(2): 181-185.

Moment of inertia is the tendency of an object to maintain its path of rotation and increases with the mass of the object and the distance from the axis of rotation. Thus a weight on a swinging atlatl stabilizes its motion and should increase accuracy. The greater the weight and the further from the handle, the more the effect, but the force necessary to swing the atlatl also increases.

Using 5 prehistoric atlatls found with weights attached, moments of inertia can be calculated, finding a narrow range. This "optimal" range of moment of inertia can then be used to model the most likely position of weights of other forms and sizes on atlatls.

Friis-Hansen, Jan

1990 Mesolithic Cutting Arrows: Functional Analysis of Arrows Used in the Hunting of Large Game. Antiquity 64(244): 494-504.

Width is most important dimension – cuts shaft free for penetration. Cutting efficiency index based on width and penetrating ability, ratio of head width/shaft circumference = wound width; ratio cross section of head/ cross section of shaft indicated penetrating ability. Cutting arrows are just as effective as pointed arrowheads. Hafted arrows illustrated.

Frison, George C.

1965 Spring Creek Cave, Wyoming. Amerian Antiquity 31(1):81-94.

Late Middle Prehistoric [Archaic] material from a cave, including corner-notched dart points, and a C14 date of A.D. 225 + 200. Organic artifacts include 5 atlatl fragments of Rhus trilobata and shaft fragments. Atlatl distal fragment has integral hook with groove like SW Basketmaker. Proximal fragments have a narrowed handle with opposed projections. Nine distal shaft ends have conical sockets with grooves and some sinew wrapped, some red painted, varying in diameter from 1.2-1.6 cm. Sixteen proximal shaft ends have shallow cup-like depressions, vary in diameter from .6-.7 cm. No evidence of fletching noted on shafts but several cut feathers appear to be fletching debris. Thirteen foreshafts have tapered proximal ends with spiral rasping, nocks made by groove-and-snap, vary in length from 5.1-27.3 cm, diameters .8-1.1 cm. No adhesive on sockets. Two have points held in nock with sinew only.

Frison, George C.

1968 Daugherty Cave, Wyoming. Plains Anthropologist 13 (42) pt 1: 253-295.

Late Middle Prehistoric and Late Prehistoric materials. Ten dart foreshafts, some notched for point by tenon method, tenon wastes also found. Conical proximal ends, spiral abrading. Three possible atlatl fragments of Rhus trilobata, similar to Spring Creek specimens, only one figured appears to be proximal end. Associated with medium corner-notched points. Two broken bar atlatl weights. Also some arrow and a bow fragment from upper level.

Frison, George C.

1989 Experimental Use of Clovis Weaponry and Tools on African Elephants. American Antiquity 54(4): 766-783.

Clovis points used on culled elephants, observations on hafting and effectiveness, herd behavior and strategy. Hafted on wooden foreshaft socketed into mainshaft, spear weight 358-432 grams [very heavy for atlatl], but heavier got better penetration. Penetration ends when larger shaft reaches hole, so long foreshaft better, but longer breaks more easily. Points survived remarkably long use, one of five did not break (12 shots), others damaged and repaired. Tip damage most common. Rhus trilobata atlatl, with groove and integral hook, 62 cm long, rigid, no weight, 225 gm. Claims “3 decades of experimentation with atlatl and dart,” but reports problems with accuracy and trajectory in this experiment. [Wish he would write up his other atlatl experience.]

Atlatl thrown spear proved capable of inflicting mortal wounds on elephants: multiple successful hits, although lots that would not have killed too. Successful penetration of rib cage, 9-12 mm thick hide, into lung cavity at 15-20 m. Thrusting spear also successful. Hunter movement necessary in atlatl use might startle animal; other hunters to distract would help.

Butchering with biface thinning flakes. Main effort is cutting hide, quartzite more durable than chert. Dismembering is easy and may leave no marks on bone.

Elephant family groups are formidable; cooperative stalking of individuals most likely.

Gardner, Fletcher and George C. Martin

1932? A New Type of Atlatl from a Cave Shelter on the Rio Grande near Shumla, Valverde County, Texas. Big Bend Basket Maker Papers 2. Witte Memorial Museum, San Antonio, Texas.

Previous finds of notched arrows in atlatl-age deposits could be contemporaneity, or now explained by find of atlatl to cast them.

Ash wood fragment with distal groove and "wedge-shaped" hook to engage arrow nock, narrow, rigid, proximal end missing, decorative notches on bottom.

Cane arrow shaft 3/8" diam, end narrowed by sinew wrap, flared for nock, 3 feather traces.

Experimental atlatl with commercial arrows got similar range but less accuracy than bow.

[Hard to swallow - arrow engaged with hook with nock vertical - would the hook really hold for a throw? Can you actually throw something as short as an arrow with an atlatl?– I haven’t tried. Unscientific excavation - does the arrow really belong with the atlatl?]

Garrod, Dorothy A. E.

1955 Palaeolithic Spear-Throwers. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 21:21-35.

66 specimens, Magdalenian, 2 or 3 complete, 6 antler part complete but intended to have wooden extension.

Most hooked (male type), 1 or 2 groove and hook, 1 doubtful female type.

Most (41) plain "stick" type of antler, 21 "weighted" by sculpture on a palm of the antler, which incorporates hook.

Horse most common motif (29), also reindeer, deer, bison, ibex, mammoth, birds, fish, feline, musk-ox, chamois. Shaft often curved so contacts spear only at hook and handle. Some carvings may serve as weight balancing spear. Complete specimens 28-34 cm long, but hole in proximal end may be for peg to hold on wooden handle, or wooden cross bar grip - now need experiments.

Brief individual descriptions, line drawings.

Pipes also associated with war, and with birth/adoption, and with maleness. Tubular pipes could be held in hole in grip of atlatl, and some S. Am. cigar holders appear to retain atlatl form. Tube pipe in atlatl = model for platform pipe and flat stem of calumet pipe, some of which have bowls shaped like mace or the loops of atlatl grip - flute which passes air through stem is link, and has similar geographical distribution as calumet. Maya God K a related symbol.

[Interesting ideas, lots of possible connections, but ultimately not convincing - it is easy to connect vague symbolisms using major cultural themes and artifacts of superficially similar form. Some contradictions (e.g. atlatl = female, then later atlatl = pipe = cigar = penis), and actual evidence is pretty thin. See Whittaker 1998 for critique.]

Hamilton, Henry W.

1952 The Spiro Mound. The Missouri Archaeologist 14: 1-276.

Illustrates some atlatl weights and bannerstones from the looting of the mound. One bannerstone has a bead in the hole and was reputedly found strung with others, documenting a secondary use. See Brown 1996.

Hamilton, T. M. x

1972 Native American Bows. York: George Shumway Publishers.

Hamlin, Christine

2001 Sharing the Load: Gender and Task Division at the Windover Site. In Gender and the Archaeology of Death, B. Arnold and N. L. Wicker eds., pp. 119-135. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

Florida mortuary pond, Archaic, dates 8120-6990 BP. Good organic preservation, 145 burials. Hunting related artifacts include atlatl cup/hooks, dart shaft, weights, points of antler and stone, all conclusively associated more with males than females and adults more than juveniles. However, of 15 individuals with hunting artifacts, two females had antler points.

Hamm, Jim o

1989 Bows and Arrows of the Native Americans. New York: Lyons and Burford.

Harrington, Mark R.

1924 The Ozark Bluff-Dwellers. American Anthropologist n.s. 26(1):1-21.

Dry shelter excavations in Arkansas. Preserved organics include atlatl and foreshafts. Two cultures recognized: “Bluff-Dweller” and “top-layer culture”. For earlier, emphasizes hunting – lots of faunal bone, heavy flint points “too large for arrows” wooden foreshafts, cane spear shafts, and a wooden atlatl. Possible crude arrows also in Bluff-Dweller levels. Atlatl: 1 complete, several broken examples. Made of wood, 19” long, projection at one end for spear and transverse peg at handle for grasping. Comparable to an Aztec type. [Small photo shows rough looking stick with transverse peg high where forefinger and thumb might grasp it. Shaft also appears to have finger notches at that point. Hook might be integral, but can’t see it.] Foreshafts about 8” long, some ornamented with incised lines, both binding and mastic used, tapered to fit shaft. Points usually “diamond shape” or side-notched or stemmed.

Associated culture described at length, including: Oval biface found hafted as axe. Numerous corn cobs, also beans in bags, and squash, and sunflower, and gourds, as well as unidentified seeds. Hafted mussel shell hoe. Storage pits for corn. Lots of nets and baskets. “Bushels” of acorns, walnuts, hickory, hazelnuts. Deer skin robes, feather blankets [like SW], breechcloth, moccasins. Sees similarity to Southwestern prehistoric cultures, and atlatl suggests equal antiquity.

Harrington, Mark R.

1959 A Two-Purpose Atlatl. The Masterkey 33(2):60

[Photo shows basketmaker SW type atlatl with finger loops] found in shelter, Winnemucca Lake, NV. Handle is long and narrow and has an antler attached for chipping, also photographed. [Too short, no further info, and I can’t find a better source]

Hassig, Ross

1988 Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Compiled from various sources. Atlatl predates Aztecs, although some myth claims they invented it, or credits god Opochtli. Surviving examples often ornate, perhaps for ceremonial occasions, ca. 2 feet long with hook and groove. Grips with loops, holes, or pegs. [Poor photo shows elaborate atlatl with apparently simple grip.] Darts made of oak and fletched, a variety of points used. Shown in art carried in hand, not quiver. Spanish sources say could penetrate armour. Suggests range over 55 meters, 60% more thrust than unaided spear [but all this is from old experiments]. Bows and slings also used in warfare.

Macuahuitl (obsidian edged wooden sword) also described, none survive, but 19^th C illustration of one in Madrid armory does, and lots of contemporary illustrations.

Atlatl probably used as armies closed for hand to hand combat, after bow and sling barrage.

Hayden, Brian

1979 Palaeolithic Reflections: Lithic Technology and Ethnographic Excavation Among Australian Aborigines. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra and Humanities Press Inc, New Jersey.

Very detailed description of stone tools and use experiments conducted with aboriginal men and women in Australia. Includes some information on manufacture of woomera type “meru” spear throwers (scoop shape with adze stone hafted in handle) and “crude” spears. [Focus is on hyper-detailed descriptions of use of simple stone tools and their manufacture and wear, useful for lithic studies, not very useful for atlatl interests. Most informants had not actually used stone tools since the 1940s, and were not all competent. No illustrations of finished spear throwers, so hard to judge how well they did.]

Hayes, Virgil

1994 Tuning Weights. The Atlatl 7(3):1-4.

Weights "tune" atlatl for proper flex of atlatl and dart by adjusting speed/force of throw and flex, which he explains in terms of "archer's paradox". [Interesting ideas, but I still don’t think atlatl flex is very important or needs tuning to dart].

Heath, E. G. and Vilma Chiara

1977 Brazilian Indian Archery: A Preliminary Ethno-toxological Study of the Archery of the Brazilian Indians. The Simon Archery Foundation, Manchester Museum, Manchester.

Typology and distributional study of bows and arrows, with some details on manufacture, curare, fletchings, grip types, arrow points, and social aspects. [But the result is almost worthless, a few photos of bows in use, but no details of individual specimens from particular areas or of exemplary types. In no place is all the info on bows of any one tribe or region put together; data is all distributed in uneven smatters under topical headings. They boast about the cooperation of an archer and an ethnologist, but details useful to an archer are completely lacking. Not enough detail to replicate any bow, no info on draw weights or even brace height. Some of this is because sources are poor, and they worked mostly from museum specimens, but it is inexcusable that they didn’t go out and collect case study details from at least one or two accessible tribes. Any single example would have been more useful than this general study.]

Spear thrower use: one paragraph in section on other weapons, with a few vague literature citations and the undocumented statement: “use of the spear-thrower as a weapon has disappeared in Brazil, but its use persists in competitive sport.”

Heizer, Robert F.

1938 A Complete Atlatl Dart from Pershing County, Nevada. New Mexico Anthropologist 2(4/5): 68-71.

From guano mining in a cave near Lovelock Cave [Leonard Rockshelter]. Length 129.5 cm, three sections. Butt: cane, 38 cm, sinew wrapped at both ends, tangential eagle feather fletching with tufts of bluebird feathers, proximal end left open to engage atlatl. Central section: cane, 45 cm long, no decoration. Foreshaft: greasewood, 57 cm long (of which 10.5 cm inside cane of central section), inserted end long cylindrical taper, point damaged but no stone point was used. [By modern standards this dart is both very short (129.5 cm = 4’ 6”) and very light (38 grams, Heizer 1951). Wish he gave balance point info.]

Heizer, Robert F.

1938 An Inquiry into the Status of the Santa Barbara Spear-Thrower. American Antiquity 4(2): 137-141.

Collected 1793, Santa Barbara, Chumash area, by G.G. Hewett of ship “Discovery.”

Short (5 1/8") [how would it work? Or is is symbolic only?] board type with groove, raised bone hook, symmetrical 2 finger holes.

No precedents in area, probably results from 250 yrs of Spanish contact and colonization by Mexican Indians.

Heizer, Robert F.

1942 Ancient Grooved Clubs and Modern Rabbit Sticks. American Antiquity 8(1):41-56.

SW prehistoric grooved clubs – are they the same as historic SW rabbit sticks? Basketmaker - long, flat, S-curved, 3-4 grooves. Guernsey and Kidder 1921 suggest association with atlatl as warding sticks, and note similar in hands of Maya/Toltec carvings. Now clubs seem wider distributed in the west, not all with associated atlatl, some with bow. Roberts 1929 thinks TX specimens fighting or throwing clubs. Heizer thinks “specialized adjunct to hunting, first with atlatl, later bow” to dispatch wounded game. Archaeological and ethnographic information summarized (many finds, ethnographic from all over west including Hopi and CA). Should be a historical connection, perhaps from war to later hunting. [I find it hard to picture fighting with atlatl in one hand, while warding off darts with the other hand that has to hold the club and extra darts – a fighting or throwing club seems more likely].

Heizer, Robert F.

1945 Introduced Spearthrowers (Atlatls) in California. The Masterkey 19:109-112.

Three separate historic introductions of atlatl: 1. Santa Barbara [short little thing], collected 1792, is “poor copy of Tarascan type”, introduced through Spanish colonial settlement. 2. Two Alaskan spear throwers, collected late 1800s, Chumash area, introduced by Aleut and Koniag hunters employed by Russian sea-otter hunting expeditions. 3. Susanville basketmaker type [see Fenenga and Heizer 1941] turns out to have belonged to a local Indian whose son-in-law learned how to make and use atlatls from M.R. Harrington. So California had prehistoric atlatls, but there is no evidence of survival into historic times.

Heizer, Robert F.

1951 Preliminary Report on the Leonard Rockshelter Site, Pershing County, Nevada. American Antiquity 17(2):89-98.

Work in 1949 at site where atlatl dart found 1936, in deep bat guano layer. C14 dates on guano average 8660+300, greasewood atlatl shaft fragment 7038+350 B.P., relatively humid Anathermal period of the Postglacial. Dart shaft complete, 3 sections, 130 cm long, cane shaft, long greaswood foreshaft with simple tip, 38.5 grams, two tangential feathers, red painted spiral decoration. Long chronological discussion.

Helmick, Troy C.

1996 Atlatl Weights Found in Montana: An Atlatlist's Perspective. Archaeology in Montana 37(2):67-78. Reprinted Indian Artifact Magazine 7(3):16-19 (Aug 1998). Reprinted The Atlatl 14(3):1-6 (July 2001).

Nine specimens described + mapped, well illustrated, variety of materials and sizes, mostly elongate with central groove for lashing. Lists functional theories [but reaches no conclusion].

Herbert, Wally

1981 Hunters of the Polar North: The Eskimos. Time-Life Books, Amsterdam.

Nice photos and essays on W. Greenland Eskimo. Two photos of throwing harpoon with "throwing stick" from a kayak while hunting narwhal.

Hermann, Ferdinand

1967 Volkerkunde Australiens. Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim.

Ethnology focused on tribal distributions. Short section on spears and spear thrower, 2 good photos, one showing throw with flexing darts.

Hester, Thomas R.

1974 Supplementary Notes on A Great Basin Atlatl. In Great Basin Atlatl Studies, RF Heizer, ed., pp 29‑32. Ramona: Ballena Press

Winnemucca Lake specimen.

Basketmaker style handle with pair of leather finger loops, but with antler flaker on proximal end, odd keeled hook which may be incomplete, 56 cm long, max W 2.5 cm, max T 1.25 cm, couldn’t weigh.

Hester, Thomas R.

1974 Archaeological Materials from Site NV‑WA‑197, Western Nevada: Atlatl and Animal Skin Ponches. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility 21:1‑43. Berkeley: University of California

Analysis of looted material from dry cave. Unusual atlatl >6000BC, 2 skin pouches w/stone tools ‑ hafted bifaces used as fish knives plus ? [A. Romano points out more likely atlatl dart foreshafts, possibly used in fishing, with a feathered line found with them attached as float.]

>100 pts and preforms of Eastgate type (shows type’s reality), probably by one individual, with compound short antler pressure‑flaker.

Hester, Thomas R, and M.P. Mildner

1974 An Atlatl from Council Hall Cave, Nevada. In Great Basin Atlatl Studies, R.F. Heizer, ed., pp 33‑36. Ramona: Ballena Press.

From Harrington’s excavations, 1920s.

Specimen described – basic SW form: a straight flat stick with groove and integral hook, finger notches but no surviving loops, 52.7 cm long, 1.9 cm wide, no thickness measured.

Hill, Malcolm

1948 The Atlatl, or Throwing Stick, A Recent Study of Atlatls in Use with Darts of Various Sizes. Tennessee Archaeologist 4:37‑44.

Importance of different grips. Could use one hand to hold back dart and add flexing force to throw if atlatl flexible, “grasping the handle of the atlatl with the left hand and the spur end, including the rear end of the dart, with the right hand.” Probably influenced invention of bow. He then says “sweeping movement is necessary to propel the dart.” But he claims the 2-hand method works in cramped quarters to “propel the dart with the wrist alone 40-50 feet.” [Absurd – I can’t believe that after experimentation he still suggested this.] Darts less than 30” didn’t work well. Small darts better ‑ up to 60 yards. Rigid atlatl gives longer throws than flexible. Recognizes limitations of his reproductions and skill [also small samples of throws]. Two atlatls tested with and without small weights near handle, “their value was definitely negative.” [Actually, it seems to improve distance for the light darts, but not for the medium or heavier, but as he only measured 6 shots for each of 12 trials, probably not statistically significant.]

Max throw 242 feet. [Illustrations show he tried a variety of atlatl forms.]

Hill, Malcolm

1949 A Time Study in Making an Atlatl with Primitive Flint Tools. Tennessee Archaeologist 5(1):12.

Took him two hours and 58 minutes.

Hobbs, Horace P.

1963 The Mystery of the Bannerstones and a Possible Solution. Archaeological Society of Virginia Quarterly Bulletin 18:2-7.

Bannerstones, especially butterfly and related forms, could have been mounted to slide on a central rod between two side rods on a “super atlatl.” This explains fragility, small holes, and symmetry. Tested with concrete bannerstone and 5.5’ spear [details lacking] against hand throwing and “simple” atlatl. Either atlatl doubled distance thrown by hand; super atlatl did better, up to about 55 yards. Bannerstone adds thrust, and also “counteracts forward weight of spear, keeping it in balance until thrown.” Super atlatl allows stone position to be adjusted according to weight of spear.

[Creative idea, but excessively complicated and implausible.]

Holt, C. Brian

1992 A Brief Study on Atlatl Spur Angles. The Atlatl 5(2): 3-4.

Lower angle spur (less elevated) required flatter throw, less follow through, flatter trajectory, more force.

Holm, Bill

1988 Art and Culture Change at the Tlingit-Eskimo Border. In Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, edited by William W. Fitzhugh and Aron Crowell, pp. 281-294. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Tlingit, northernmost NW Coast culture, in contact with Eskimo Chugach and Koniag, show many Eskimo features, including throwing boards. Exchange increased after Russians brought Aleut and Eskimo fur hunters. Sea-otter harpoon/arrow is most obvious borrowing – form and decoration, but used exclusively with bow instead of atlatl. But a dozen Tlingit throwing boards are known, with NW Coast decoration. Many appear old and worn, functional but not efficient – poor handle, short length between forefinger hole and hook (about 1/2 total length). Shamanic decoration suggests purely ritual use. [Figure contrasts Eskimo and Tlingit grips, shows 19^th C Tlingit throwing board, nicely carved but clumsy looking. Can’t see upper face with hook.]

Holmes, William Henry

1897 Stone Implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province. Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual Report, 1893-94: 13-152.

Bannerstones illustrated, referred to as “winged ceremonial stones.”

Holmes, William Henry

1919 Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. Part 1: Introductory and the Lithic Industries. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 60. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.

(23, 24) He refers to “banner stones” which “certainly had no other than sacred and ceremonial functions.” Ignores chronological evidence (see Moorehead 1910) to suggest that they may imitate Viking axes, but seems to favor Gordon (1916) idea that they originate in northern American whale tail symbolism. No mention of atlatls.

Hothem, Lar

1998 Chlorite Pick Bannerstones. Prehistoric Antiquities Quarterly18(3):70-72.

Pick or wing shaped with hole for wood shaft. Considers Indian Knoll type atlatls too weak for practical use. [They aren’t – I’ve made one.]

Howard, Calvin D.

1974 The Atlatl: Function and Performance. American Antiquity 39(1):102‑104.

Not catapult, flipping device, or lever arm etc. Spur and handle remain

level throughout throw ‑ greater thrust because spur remains in contact w/spear

longer than hand would. [Unusual theory, and wrong – in a good throw atlatls do not remain level in use, the lever action is what does the work - was his hook wrong?]

Weights don't help. Fairly accurate. Adds 60% distance over same spear hand thrown [a considerable underestimate].

Howard, Calvin D.

1976 Atlatl function: A Reply to Butler. Plains Anthropologist 21 (74):313‑314.

Counters Butler 1975. Spur would break off under stresses of a throw where the dart pivoted 90 degrees on it.

Hranicky, Wm Jack

2002 Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.

Full of useful information on lithics and related topics much beyond the focus on Middle Potomac, but rather incoherently organized and written, and he’s too fond of creating bad new jargon. Lots of illustrations of varying quality. Major sections on chronology, lithic technology, point typology, flake tools, caches, miscellaneous implements, and experimental archaeology.

[Small section on atlatls, not well defined, not very useful information. Illustrates atlatl hook of basalt from VA, no provenance given. Mentions “Hardaway site produced an atlatl made from antler” but no citation. How the hell does a “Functional Angle of 45-180 degrees” apply to atlatls?] Bannerstone section summarizes Hranicky 2003.

Hranicky, Wm Jack

2003 Bannerstones: A Study on Their Holes. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia. 58(1): 35-46.

Accepts bannerstones, barstones and boatstones as atlatl weights. Adds balance and stability, and inertia in a pendulum system [apparently Webb’s idea], silences launch [claims as his idea, but see Perkins 1993]. Virginia lacks high quality forms, only datable contexts are Woodland and probably Late Archaic. Could be used as pendant, or multiple stones on one atlatl. Stone or reed drilling, one or both directions. Some too large for atlatl use (should be <50 mm in any dimension) [no weight information given]. Large bannerstones are higher quality, some holes show polish suggesting strap wear. Hole diameter 11-15 mm usual.

Problematic statements: “Clovis point was a knife and based on its size, not flyable as a spear point.” “Bannerstone …a life-time personal object…for males…made during adolescence and carried until the user could no longer hunt.” Replaced only if had bad magic, in which case killed by breaking, or killed at death of owner, but rare in graves. [So how associated with age or gender?] Some fragments continued use, drilled for pendants.

Hrdlicka, Daryl

2002 How Hard Does It Hit? The Atlatl 15(4):16-18.

Energy calculations for atlatl dart compared to other projectiles. Force (momentum) reflects how hard it hits target (F = Mass x Acceleration). Kinetic Energy (stored energy in projectile) determines amount of damage to target (KE = 1/2 Mass x Velocity squared). Atlatl darts have more impact force and momentum than most bullets (because more mass) but much less kinetic energy (because slow). “Weaker than modern firearms, but still capable of bringing down largest game.” They rely on penetration rather than shock to damage target. [Very interesting calculations. Unfortunately he uses US measurements - who ever heard of “slugs” of mass! And no doubt some readers will interpret this as “atlatl more powerful than gun.”]

Hrdlicka, Daryl

2003 How Hard Does It Hit? A Revised Study of Atlatl and Dart Ballistics. The Atlatl 16(2):15-18. Also posted (2004) at http://www.thudscave.com/npaa/articles/howhard.htm

Three variables for comparison: how hard it hits (kinetic energy), how hard it is to stop (momentum) and how effectively it penetrates (sectional density). Calculations for spears, atlatl darts, arrows, bullets. Darts much less kinetic energy (KE = 1/2 Mass x Velocity squared) than bullets, but more than arrows, and plenty to take big game by archery standards. Momentum = Mass X Velocity so darts less than heavy spears or fast bullets, but more than .357 magnum or arrows. High momentum promotes penetration, especially of harder tissues. Sectional density (Weight/Diameter 2) also affects penetration – denser, smaller projectiles penetrate better, so darts very effective, relatively heavy and small. [Improved version of 2002. Good explanations of physics, but I still think a “slug-ft/sec” is a measurement used in slow garden races.]

Hrdlicka, Daryl

2003 NPAA Northern Plains Atlatl Association Web Page. URL http//: www.thudscave.com/npaa/index.htm (accessed 2/2004)

Many links and articles, including the following by Hrdlicka. One of the most useful atlatl sites.

2003 Intro to the Atlatl.

2003 Using the Atlatl: The Basics.

Distinguishes 4 grip types based on how dart, not atlatl, is held: Knuckle (split finger, Basketmaker, with dart between knuckles); Thumb (thumb and index thru loops hold dart); Modified Thumb (1-hole Eskimo with index thru hole, thumb helps hold dart); Hammer (dart on rest, not held by fingers, modern) [so no holes, no rest like Peruvian would be what? Thumb or M Thumb? A good idea for classifying grips but not exhaustive.] Good description of throwing motion.

2003 Terms for the Atlatl.

Ethnographic (Australia has most) and modern, “Klingon,” and ancient [Sumerian, Egypt, Sanskrit – I know no other evidence for atlatls in these areas and suspect the words relate to spears or rabbit stick type “throwing sticks”]

2003 Peg Styles.

2003 Atlatl Weight Attachments.

2003 Handles

2003 Carving Soapstone Weights

2003 Atlatl Plans

“found, made, reverse-engineered, and otherwise gathered a number of plans and designs… arranged according to where in the world this type was used.”

[Some 75 designs, varying quality and usefulness, good source of ideas]

2003 Australian Children’s Darts

2003 Dart Construction.

Tips and plans for a variety of darts, straightening, fletching, etc.

Hughes, Susan S.

1998 Getting to the Point: Evolutionary Change in Prehistoric Weaponry. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 5(4):345-408.

[Mixed paper.] Begins with long discussion of engineering characteristics of thrusting spears, fletched and unfletched darts, and arrows. Evaluates particularly mass, width, and cross-sectional area as important attributes of points. Applies expectations to interpret sequence of points from Mummy Cave, Wyoming. Concludes small late points indicate rapid and complete replacement of atlatl by bow and arrow 1500-1300 BP, spearthrower dominated assemblage from beginning as early as 9200 BP to 1500 BP, and thrusting spears (very large points) were in use as supplement throughout. Before 7970 BP, points large but variable, probably because used to balance unfletched darts; after fletching, less variable, somewhat lighter. [Her conclusions are plausible and probably right, but the engineering section, although has some good ideas and info, is very theoretical, not based on practical experience, and has a lot of weak reasoning and inadequate data. Her ideas about the advantages of different weapons in particular are weakly supported and overgeneralized.]

Hunter, Wryley

1992 Reconstructing a Generic Basketmaker Atlatl. Bulletin of Primitive Technology. 1(4):57‑61.

Good information and illustrations of several Basketmaker (SW) atlatls, including good drawings of Broken Roof Cave, Lukachukai, White Dog Cave, Sand Dune Cave specimens, with table of dimensions and specifics.

Hurst, Winston B. and Christy G. Turner

1993 Rediscovering the "Great Discovery:" Wetherill's First Cave 7 and its Record of Basketmaker Violence. IN Anasazi Basketmaker: Papers from the 1990 Wetherill-Grand Gulch Symposium, V.M. Atkins ed, pp. 143-192. Salt Lake City: Bureau of Land Management Cultural Resource Series No. 24.

Site in Utah where Wetherill first recognized people earlier than pueblos.

About 90 burials, evidence of violence including atlatl dart points in bodies, clubbing, scalping, stabbing with stone knives and bone daggers.

Distinguishes knives (>9 cm, diagonal notches) from atlatl dart points (smaller, diagonal or horizontal notches). The point assemblage is comparable to other Basketmaker points, less so to Archaic (Elko) point series.

Hutchings, Wallace Karl

1997 The Paleoindian Fluted Point: Dart or Spear Armature? The Identification of Paleoindian Delivery Technology Through the Analysis of Lithic Fracture Velocity. PhD dissertation, Simon Fraser University.

“Velocity-dependent fractures on fluted points reveal fracture rates associated with high-velocity impacts, indicating the use of the spearthrower” No clear evidence of Clovis atlatl, but early dates on hooks from Marmes Rockshelter and Warm Mineral Springs, both 9-10,000 BP, others. Summarizes Clovis and Folsom tool kits and hunting strategies. Problems of classifying points as dart or arrow tips, criticizes Odell’s flake point hypothesis – accidental fractures look similar. Fracture surface features on flakes reflect manufacture. Relation between Wallner lines and fracture origin reflects velocity of fracture. [Fracture mechanics details and derivation of fracture velocities difficult to understand, illustrations in my copy reproduced poorly.] Test on manufacturing techniques, with velocity distinguishing pressure, soft percussion and indirect perc, and hard hammer perc, but variable and overlapping, especially pressure. Impact fracture should be in the “dynamic loading” or high speed range of fracture propagation.

Problems of reconstructing hafting system for experiments [good example of reasoning from variety of evidence]. Uses flute width to estimate shaft diameters of 12-17 mm. Compares Huckell 1982 and Frison 1989 experiments. Prehistoric darts (mostly SW and Gt Basin) 3-19 mm diameter, foreshafts 6-19 mm diameters, most 8-11 mm. Coleman, boar hunter, prefers 221 cm long, 11mm diam, Clovis point 20-30 gm, total weight 240 gm, similar to Australian average weight of 246 gm.

Ethnog hunting range data poor, suggest accurate range 10-30 m.

Coleman's Georgia boar hunts - 51 hits, 58 misses, kills from 3-46 m, average 15 m. Measured spearthrower velocities, see Hutchings and Bruchert 1997.

Point fracture velocity tests using large cross bow at short range, shots against stone and beef ribs. All points obsidian, more or less Clovis form. Darts 167-296 gms, velocities averaged 35.6 m/sec, kinetic energy 117-165 Joules. Fracture velocity data from 53 points, spanned rapid (38%) and dynamic (62%) loading rate regimes. In other words, lots of variability, with fracture velocities “spanning full range of fracture velocities associated with stone tool manufacture. This suggests that the impact fracturing of lithic projectiles is a complex process which involves more than just those fractures caused by the extreme force of sudden impact.” Fracture velocity less affected by impacted material (stone or rib) than in manufacture experiments. Compared also javelin, spear, and arrow, and dropped darts. Spear continuous pressure produces quasi-static (slow) fracture, javelin much slower than dart and arrow, which are similar. Only arrow and dart produce fractures in the upper dynamic loading range.

[I have trouble believing that projectile velocity makes much difference to fracture velocities which are 10-50 times greater, ie projectile velocities around 35 m/s, fracture velocities around from 454-2231 m/sec. Also, note fairly consistent dart velocity, highly variable fracture velocity. His explanation that fractures are complex, and one impact may produce evidence of several speeds may be right. He would say lower ranges aren’t definitive, but high range only achieved by arrow or dart.]

Examined archaeological specimens, total of 668, mostly fluted points and fragments, from many sites. Clovis – 19 pts with “velocity dependent” fracture features, 63% in “dynamic” range. Eight Folsom points, all within dynamic range. [Problems here include small sample, and calculations of fracture velocity apparently based on Modoc obsidian rather than actual material of points.]

Low fracture velocities in flute scars suggest pressure fluting of Clovis.

[Very interesting, high potential. I want to see other similar studies before I’m fully convinced.]

Hutchings, W. Karl and Lorenz W. Bruchert

1997 Spearthrower Performance: Ethnographic and Experimental Research. Antiquity 71(274): 890-897.

[Key article, good references]

Experimental focus has been on how spear thrower works - but performance capability is more interesting. Browne, Butler, Patterson threw incorrectly, thus failed to evaluate right.

More than 1/2 spear velocity comes from "rotational acceleration of wrist and forearm" [so does atlatl work by magnifying that?]. Velocity data should not be derived from distance throws - measure directly at launch and target by photo.

Dart variation affects performance more than atlatl.

Ethnog range of dart lengths is 1.2 m (Eskimo) to 3.4 m (Australia).

American West darts from caves consistently light (45-90 gm), short (116-160 cm).

Ethnog hunting range data poor, suggest accurate range 10-30 m.

Coleman's Georgia boar hunts - 51 hits, 58 misses, kills from 3-46 m, average 15 m.

Velocity measurements by others 20 to 40 m/sec.

Tested darts 82-545 gm at 15 m target distance. Velocity 28-64 m/sec, averages 33-47 m/sec, even heavy dart worked fine, 220 gm best matched to atlatl.

Would produce >350 Joules kinetic energy, = 4x arrow from modern bow.

Conclusions: 1) Need adequate skill to test. 2) Spearthrower not inaccurate or inefficient. 3) More powerful than generally realized - capable of more force than arrow, and when used at similar ranges, equivalent accuracy. 4) Replacement probably because bow easier to use.

Janetski, Joel C., and Michael J. Hall

1983 An Archaeological and Geological Assessment of Antelope Cave (NA

5507), Mohave County, Northwestern Arizona. Department of Anthropology

Technical Series No. 83-73. Brigham Young University, Provo.

Among finds, in looter’s trench, most of a Basketmaker atlatl, with distal end burned off. Oak, 41 cm L, 2.2 W, .5 thick. Loops of yucca fiber wrapped in hide.

Junkmanns, Jurgen

2001 Arc et Fleche: Fabrication et Utilisation au Neolithique. (Bow and Arrow: Manufacture and Use in the Neolithic). Editions Musee Schwab, Bienne.

Booklet, well illustrated in color, large number of prehistoric European bows and points, information on experimental manufacture. Short section on atlatl with photos of use [but showing bad form].

Jurmain, Robert

1978 Paleoepidemiology of degenerative joint disease. Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 14:45-56.

1999 Stories from the Skeleton: Behavioral Reconstruction in Human Osteology. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

References and discussion of atlatl elbow. Discusses problems with interpreting osteoarthritis in terms of activities, doesn’t feel there is good evidence for atlatl use in archaeological skeletal arthritis.

Justice, Noel D.

2002 Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of the Southwestern United States. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

Pages 30-37 good summary of SW atlatls and references, poor drawing of action. Lots of discussion of atlatl dart point types.

Kellar, James H.

1955 The Atlatl in North America. Indiana Historical Society, Prehistory Research Series, Volume 3, Number 3: 280-352.

[Good summary of available reports, still useful. Focus on distribution. Experiment notably lacking.] “No objective analysis of the efficacy of a projectile thrown with the aid of the atlatl is extant.” Cites a few ethnographic observations, including Nelson 1899 to support accuracy. Distributional discussion, begins with Old World. Earliest from Magdalenian, bow appears to be Neolithic. Archaeology is lacking where there is known ethnographic atlatl use. Distinguishes eastern (tapered, more specialized handles, undecorated) and western (more rectangular, finger grooves, decorated in Greenland) Eskimo areas. Archaeological evidence back to Old Bering Sea culture, surveys other finds. [Illustrations throughout are too few, mostly line drawings, clear but lacking detail.] One Tlingit specimen, puzzling Santa Barbara (short) example. SW, including Oklahoma, atlatls are relatively homogeneous – grooved, loop handles, thin, weights Weights may be functional if not too close to the handle. Possible association with curved throwing stick. Great Basin atlatls differ. Gypsum Cave foreshafts associated with extinct fauna; Leonard Rock Shelter foreshaft C14 date 7038+350. History of interpretations of SE atlatl parts discussed, atlatl interpretation now considered conclusive. Six varieties of antler or bone hooks widely distributed: TX, OK, KY, TN, AL, GO, MS, IN, OH. Weights also, but antler handle confined to KY and IN. Suggestions of Hopewell atlatls by Moorehead. Cushing’s Key Marco atlatls and SE ethnohistory. For Mesoamerica, follows Nuttal, considers SW connection, diffused from N to S.

Probably once all over continent; evidence lacking. Early introduction, possibly associated with one or more of the older physical types, but could be single introduction followed by regional specialization. Atlatl persisted after bow, sometimes together, especially in marginal areas. Dating transition is difficult – maybe beginning of Christian Era in SW. Association recently between canoe hunting and atlatl (Eskimo and Mexico), and Eskimo bird darts and atlatl. Atlatl good for one hand use, and not damaged by moisture. Mesoamerican and S. Am. warfare used atlatls, perhaps for penetration against protective clothing, perhaps also ceremonial significance.

Kidder, Alfred Vincent and Samuel J. Guernsey

1919 Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 65.

[Classic report on Anasazi Pueblo and Basketmaker cave sites.]

Atlatls: several fragments, 1 complete from BM cist with burial.

Described pages 178-183: flat board, distorted by earth pressure, missing loops, limestone weight (elbow shaped, close to grip, 1 oz), groove with flush hook "mixed" type, L 28", W 1 3/8" at distal end.

Describes grip and use.

Weights might balance, add power, or be ceremonial.

Darts: all broken, butts sinew-wrapped, fletched, foreshafts into socket.

Kinsella, Larry and David Klostermeier

1993 Indian Knoll Atlatls. VHS, privately distributed, L. Kinsella,

645 Pleasant Ridge, Fairview Heights, Illinois, 62208

Detailed video documentation of all atlatl parts from Indian knoll – antler tine hooks, antler beam grips, stone and composite shell tubular weights.

Kjelgaard, Jim

1951 Fire Hunter. Scholastic Book Services, New York.

In Pleistocene America, Hawk, the tribes spear maker and Willow, an injured young woman are cast out of their tribe and survive encounters with wolves, sabretooths, and hostile tribes by wit and courage. In the course of their adventures they invent in rapid succession the spear thrower, fletching, bows and arrows, arrow poison, and domestic dogs. The David Drake (1990) re-issue adds chapters on the disasters that befall the tribe that kicked them out. [This is a classic boy’s story that inspired me when I was a kid. The conception of prehistoric society is pretty 1950s tooth and claw stuff, and Kjelgaard didn’t know a lot about prehistoric technology either. He thinks the flexing power of wood is what makes the atlatl work, which in turn leads to the invention of the bow. Fun, but not to take seriously.]

Kleiner, Kurt

2002 Neanderthals Used Both Hands to Kill. New Scientist 11/23/02 online www.newscientist.com

Reports Churchill’s work, Neanderthal right arms stronger, bone denser, experiments confirm that thrusting puts much more force on dominant arm, so don’t need throwing to explain. [But will occasional forceful use really create such differences, aside from the fact that N’s used their arms for other things too. All he’s shown is that most N’s were right handed.]

Knapp, Wyatt, and Lou Becker

2000 The Atlatl and Dart Workbook. Onagocag Publishing Co., Allendale.

Detailed instructions on making atlatls and darts, and general information on throwing, contests, hunting, and other stuff. [Easy to read, generally good information. The atlatls are all rather modernized, but despite this, most are unnecessarily complicated for the beginner. Instructions are well illustrated. Suggests (oddly) that atlatl weight transfers its momentum to dart. Includes ISAC rules, list of sources (but lacking many important ones).]

Knecht, Heidi

1993 Splits and Wedges: The Techniques and Technology of Early Aurignacian Antler Working. In Before Lascaux: The Complex Record of the Early Upper Paleolithic. H. Knecht, A. Pike‑Tay, R. White eds, pp 137‑162. Boca Raton: CRC Press

Good description of Aurignacian technology ‑ especially hafting split base points by wedging. [Not directly atlatl related. Combines archaeological , experimental, and use‑wear approaches very effectively.]

Knecht, Heidi

1997 The History and Development of Projectile Technology Research. In Projectile Technology, H. Knecht ed., pp. 3-36. Plenum, New York.

Good summary, excellent references, especially for European sources. Discusses atlatls: little ethnographic information available, lots of experiments, gives summary of weight hypotheses. Cites earliest spear thrower date: 17,470+250 on an antler hook from the Solutrean (Upper Paleolithic) of Combe Sauniere, France.

Knoblock, Byron W.

1939 Bannerstones of the North American Indian. Published by the author, LaGrange, Ill. Reprinted 1965? Quincy, Ill.

Huge 596 pp, mostly plates, a few color.

Primarily typology + illustrations, of perforated bannerstones only.

Discusses manufacture, good illustrations of unfinished specimens, some experiments in drilling.

Prefers ceremonial or ornamental use theory, tribal symbols, but includes some others, e.g. section on Indian Knoll and Moore's theory that antler hooks were netting needles, bannerstones were mesh spacers, which he likes. Also letter from Webb arguing for atlatl part theory, which he questions, and says even if some were on atlatls, ceremonial importance was foremost.

Knusel, Christopher

2000 Activity-related Skeletal Change. In V. Fioratto, A. Boylston, and C. Knusel, eds. Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461. Oxford, Oxbow Books., pp 103-118.

Asymmetry in arms of 14 men show right humerus larger proximal, left humerus larger distal. This may represent habitual archery – left elbow, right shoulder get most strain. Also one had healed avulsion fracture where epiphysis of left distal humerus (elbow) had separated at growth plate in adolescence.

Korfmann, Manfred

1973 The Sling as a Weapon. Scientific American 229(4):34-42.

Historical records from classical times, archaeology (stone, lead and clay shot) and iconography. Extreme accuracy possible, range 200-400 m, so equal or surpassing bows. Ammunition 13-450gm, mostly 20-50 gm [seems remarkably light and small]. Sling and bow were apparently mutually exclusive and used at same time by different “culture spheres” between 8000-4000 BC in Near East [I’m not convinced, not enough evidence given.] [Interesting, but not much practical experience or experiment.]

Kortlandt, Adriaan

2002 Neanderthal Anatomy and the Use of Spears. Evolutionary Anthropology 11:183-184.

African ethnographic spears used in two ways: short spear for overhand shoulder-high stab, longer for javelin-like throw. Neanderthals’ “sturdy build” perhaps an adaptation not just to cold but to “hunting large mammals with stabbing spears in dense bush and forest.” [see Churchill 2002]

Kostiw, Scott

2000 Atlatl Use In the Siege of Tenochtitlan. Indian Artifact Magazine 19(3):31, 69.

[Brief info from Maudslay’s version of Castillo].

Koup, William S.

2002 Bannerstones…What Are They? Prehistoric American 36(2):3-5.

Short review of main theories, somewhat critical of Webb, but concludes probably atlatl weights, with special signficance, and some “ceremonial” forms.

Krause, F.

1905 Sling Contrivances for Projectile Weapons. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1904: 619-638.

"Spear slings" [he dislikes "throwing stick" and does not use "atlatl"].

Works by "lengthens the arm and serves as a lever to thrust spear forward after it has flown beyond the reach of the hand." "same motion as in ordinary spear throwing" [so he expects a level motion as Howard 1974, which is not correct].

Defines nock types: male = hook on atlatl for hollow spear butt.

Female = groove on atlatl, tapered end or hook on spear.

Mixed = hook at end of groove, hollow spear butt. [This is a misnomer – the hook is the effective part, so it really should be “male” with added groove.]

Efficiency (from ethnographic reports) "3-4 times as far as with bare hands" = 200-300 feet, Australians said to reach 150 yards, accurate to 40 paces.

Different types described by area: Australia, New Guinea, Micronesia and Melanesia; North circumpolar region, especially Eskimo and Aleut; Central and S. America, including American west briefly mentioned.

Small but clear line drawings of many types.

Projectile [spear] slings and loops briefly discussed.

Kricun, Morrie E.

1994 Paleoradiology of the Prehistoric Australian Aborigines. American Journal of Roentgenology 163:241-247.

Spear thrower use mentioned as possible cause of elbow arthitis. [But no discussion, details, or even info on number of specimens examined – useless.]

Krieger, Alex D.

1956 Historic Survival of the Atlatl in the Lower Mississippi Region. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society. 27:195‑207.

Texas domesticated hog skull with large point, Spanish accounts of atlatl in Mississippi Delta.

Kwas, Mary L.

1981 Bannerstones as Chronological Markers in the Southeastern United States. Tennessee Anthropologist 6(2):144-171.

Uses modification of Knoblock’s typology, excavated examples to establish basic chronology from Middle Archaic (6000-5000 BC) appearance to shift to 2-hole gorgets in Late Archaic (around 1200 BC). Generalized trend: begins with crescent forms (crescent, shuttle, reel, double-edge, double bit axe, knobbed lunate) in early Middle Archaic, then from 4000-3000 BC (late Middle Archaic) replaced by tubular, geniculate, humped, and ovoid forms which last until ca 2000. Meanwhile, hourglass and saddle-face forms (as at Indian Knoll) appear about the same time, and apparently last a bit longer. Finally the bottle and butterfly forms begin ca 2000 in the Late Archaic, and are ending sometime after 1000, with a shift to the 2-hole gorget around 1200 and a later shift to boatstones around 600-500 BC. Tables list all specific finds from sites with association info.

Kwas, Mary L.

1982 Bannerstones: A Historical Overview. Journal of Alabama Archaeology 28(2): 155-178.

Name “bannerstone” assumed ritual or social function. Moorehead 1917 first systematic classification: lunate, bilunate, bipennate, geniculate. Knoblock 1939 major work, base for typology although his evolutionary scheme has no empirical support. Researchers tend to ignore bannerstones or inadequately describe.

Functional theories: 1) Ceremonial staff. NC find of 3 mounted on stone shafts a foot long (Baer 1921), and wear on only part of hole (Knoblock 1939), also fancy material, fragility. Carlson Annis find strung with beads around neck of burial.

2) Net spacers. Moore (1916) at Indian Knoll, association with net needles (hooks).

3) Atlatl weights. Webb, from finds at Indian Knoll and elsewhere, analogous to Basketmaker specimens (Kidder and Guersey 1919). Burial alignments consistent with SW examples – weight about 1/3 to 1/2 distance from hook. Problem with atlatl theory – hooks and bannerstones not always together, and found with female burials. Uses Indian Knoll data to demonstrate this. Also often not found with points.

Discusses experiments, which provide variable and sometimes conflicting results, partly because not systematic enough.

Precourt (1973) and Winters (1968) argue that could be both functional atlatl weights and social or status markers. Research should not assume the atlatl weight function is proven.

[Good literature review and critique up to its time. Many of the objections to atlatl weight interpretation are now less supportable, and most would now agree that symbolic use as well as hunting uses are likely.]

Laird, Roderick D.

1999 Experiments Confirm Likely Usage of Murray Springs Bone Tool. The Mammoth Trumpet 14(2):18-20.

Shaft wrench, not spinning tool as argued by Heite (MT 13(3)). Works well in pairs with heated wood shaft, has notches at ends of opening, necessary to keep from cracking shaft or letting it roll.

Lansac, Jean Pierre

2001 Discussion d’un cadre chronologique pour l’utilization du propulseur et de l’arc. Unpublished MA thesis, University of Bordeaux. Obtained on web http://perso.wanadoo.fr/archeries/MEMOIRE.htm, 8/20/01

[“On a chronological framework for the use of the spearthrower and the bow.” In French] Hunting weapons (spears) are known from at least Middle Paleolithic times, and common opinion is that spearthrowers begin at least by Solutrean, but bow not until Mesolithic. Two methods of evaluating this chronology: “direct” evidence of the weapons themselves, and “indirect” evidence of the projectile points compared to ethnographic and experimental information. Describes basic use, and male, female, and “androgenous” hook types.

First French Upper Paleolithic spearthrower finds by Lartet and Christy at Laugerie-Basse in 1862, recognized by analogy to Australian woomera by Mortillet 1891. Finds now dated from late Solutrean (17,500 BP) to late Magdalenian (12,500 BP). First European bow finds from Swiss lake dwellings [Neolithic and Bronze Age] in 19^th century. Now earliest bows from Mesolithic sites like Stellmoor (Germany, ca 11,000 BP) and Holmegaard (Denmark). Earliest arrows about same date, from Lila Loshult (Sweden) and Stellmoor.

Points are more difficult to deal with. Solutrean shouldered points have been shown to work well with spearthrowers, which are found in contemporary sites. Others, like Gravette points [small straight points made on retouched blades], were probably projectile tips, but we don’t know whether for bow or atlatl. Experiments show they work with either. Some interpret as change to light point for arrow, but no direct evidence. Ethnographic Eskimo use both bow and atlatl for different purposes – why not an archaeological transition period in Upper Paleolithic? Evidence: Most known ancient bows already sophisticated, thus long ancestry likely. Magdalenian spearthrowers are close in date to Azilian microlithic industry – small stone tools suggesting bows. Bone tools become scarce, but atlatls could be all wood and not preserved.

[Brief, few details, but useful compilation of dates, bibliography].

Laughlin, William S.

1980 Aleuts: Survivors of the Bering Land Bridge. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York.

Chapter on hunting: “Kayak hunting on the open sea is the most skilled and demanding form of hunting practiced by human beings.” High reward, high risk. Long section on child training, which includes unusually specific exercises for particular skills, including for throwing harpoon with throwing board from kayak (p. 28), for which need to “stretch the ligaments and tendons of the knee, back, and shoulder early in life.” Uncle, father, or grandfather pulls arm of boy “straight over the shoulder and back behind the head…to make the shoulder joint supple and permit greater excursion from behind with a straight arm, a valuable ability for casting harpoons with the throwing board.” Also press down knees to lengthen hamstring muscles and small of back to allow you to sit comfortably in kayak.

(p 30) Throwing boards were personal possessions, tailored to size of owner. Children practiced on land before kayak hunting. (p 32) Maximum effective range for light harpoon (4 foot length, 1.2 m) thrown with throwing board is 120 feet (36.3 m).

(p 39) Throwing board illustrated. Wooden, wide board with groove and ivory hook, hole for index finger, shaped on underside for hand grip. Looks short. “Black paint on back represented fur of the sea otter, and red paint on belly represented blood. The various parts had anatomical names.” Used with four foot harpoons, often for sea otter, but also against whale. “The spear was cast with a throwing board, assuring deep penetration.” Tips “poisoned” but ingredients magical rather than effective.

Throwing board length was elbow to end of middle finger (p 148). Harpoon heads were barbed rather than toggling (p 84). Used bow drills for fire and drilling until Russians introduced pump drill (P 86).

Lee, Arthur

1991 Weapon Found at Marcos Island Combined Atlatl and Sabre. The Atlatl 4(1): 5-6

Excerpts from Cushing 1896 - apparent atlatl with bottom edge set with shark teeth.

Lorentzen, Leon H.

1993 From Atlatl to Bow: The Impact of Improved Weapons on Wildlife in the Grasshopper Region. MA Thesis, University of Arizona.

Small pueblos in central AZ, built 1260-1270s, abandoned and burned 1290s. Grasshopper Springs site dominated by larger corner notched points, neighboring Chodistaas site has more smaller triangular notched + unnotched points. Size differences, especially stem thickness and width, compared to surviving + ethnographic hafted points, suggest corner notched = dart, triangular = arrow. Shaft straighteners (work for reed arrows) 4 on floor at Chodistaas, 2 in fill (later reuse) at Grasshopper Springs. So transition to bow and arrow was late 1200s in this region.

After 1300 bow and arrow was improved by matching arrow sets - find perforated antler = arrow gauges [but why then is there so much diversity in size and form of points at Grasshopper 1300-1400?]. Population increase and better hunting technology resulted in destruction of game - some evidence in faunal remains and human skeleton isotope studies.

[Good try but late retention of atlatls is just not convincing: he shows definite differences in point assemblages, but points are still not direct atlatl evidence, larger points may be arrows too, why would some sites in central AZ still use atlatl long after all others there and in rest of SW had changed, why are there no late cave finds of atlatls or artistic depictions anywhere in SW?]

Loud, Llewellyn, and Mark R. Harrington

1929 Lovelock Cave. University of California, Berkeley. (republished 1991, Falcon Hill Press, Sparks, NV).

Pp. 99-100 spear thrower, notches for grip, no loops, groove but hook missing, 45 cm long, illustration of model of original which is lost. Also found were cane shaft fragments, and foreshafts, some bunts, some with stone points.

Lutz, David L.

2000 The Archaic Bannerstone: Its Chronological History and Purpose from 6000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. David L. Lutz, privately published.

A massive and finely illustrated attempt to analyze chronological change in bannerstone styles. Examines associations of different bannerstone forms with projectile point types, C14 dates from excavations, and other chronological evidence, using museum collections, published excavation data, and non-archaeological collections. Reviews theories of function and history of study. Bannerstones are originally atlatl weights, but the ritual or social use is emphasized. [Usual weak arguments against atlatl function. I don’t understand why people want to think that stones used as atlatl weights would not have ritual or social importance.] Recognizes a “3-Bannerstone Cache” trait in Middle and Late Archaic. Such finds often have stones of different form together, and different contemporary forms represent clan or tribal symbols. [Not a bad idea, although a bit simplistic. See Sassaman 1988.] Suggests antler atlatl hook chronology: short Eva type 4500 BC, longer Black Earth type with shaped hook end 3800 B.C., long simpler tine hook Indian Knoll type 3000 B.C., Terminal Archaic type with slotted attachment to atlatl 2200-1200 B.C. The bannerstone chronology is too complex to summarize here. [Useful study, and just what needed to be done, but some problems. Introductory sections are badly organized. Hard to extract the important chronology or check the reasoning. He should have given the gist in a chart or table. Non-professional collections are dangerous – fake artifacts and failures of documentation and finders’ memories. Some of the associations claimed are probably not good, as when he argues that bannerstones found together on a site surface are contemporary, but points from same site are older “found” points. Although the photos are excellent, only outline size is measured, not hole diameter or weight.]

Lyons, Richard B.

1999 The Spine Tester. The Atlatl 12(1):7-8.

Method of measuring spine, data from a number of atlatlists.

Lyons, Richard B.

2002 Atlatl Weights. The Atlatl 15(4):1-3.

Lutz book reorders bannerstone sequence. Webb had hook type going from long to short, so weight could be closer to end of atlatl. His final form bannerstones with hook are mistakes based on damaged specimens, but an atlatl with the weight out past the hook actually works well.

Lyons, Richard B.

2003 Atlatl Weights. The Dart December 2003: 17-20.

Madden, James W.

1991 The Art of Throwing Weapons. Paladin Press, Boulder.

Simplistic basics for knives, tomahawks, spears, etc, and atlatl. None with enough detail to be useful. [Has he ever really mastered atlatl? - uses bad motion, poor atlatl, and apparently rigid heavy spear. Not useful.]

Madsen, David B.

1992 An Atlatl From Snow Canyon State Park. Utah Archaeology 5(1):133-136.

In lava tube cave, probably associated with adult male skeleton, estimated date 1500-2500 BP.

Simple flat stick atlatl, 59 cm long, narrowed grip but no loops or weights, integral hook at end of groove - like Basketmaker but no evidence of loops or weights.

Marriner, Harry A.

2000 Estolicas of the Columbian Muiscas. The Atlatl 13(2):1-2.

Brief historical account, legends, encountered by Spanish. Hook at each end [not explained], stone hooks, and miniature gold offerings (illustrated) known.

Marriner, Harry A.

2001 Dart-thrower Use in Colombia and its Representation in Colombian Rock Art. The Atlatl 14(2):1-5.

Muisca culture (700-1600 AD) both atlatl (Sp.“estolica,” Muisca “Queskes”) and bow and arrow represented on gold tunjo figures, as gold miniature offerings, and buried with mummies. Straight rod “Andean type” atlatl with hook and hook-like handle carved of stone or shell, 42-60 cm long, used with spear with barbed wooden points. Other estolica styles discussed. In rock art in Chiribiquete National Park.

[Most photos are badly computer reproduced and useless].

Martin, George C.

1933 Archaeological Exploration of the Shumla Caves. Southwest Texas Archaeological Society Bulletin 3 (Big Bend Basket Maker Papers No. 3). Witte Memorial Museum, San Antonio, Texas.

Dry caves [apparently primitive excavation methods], with atlatl and related specimens pp. 24-25. Arrow shaft fragments “made for use with atlatl designed for throwing a light arrow” with deep flared nocks. Wooden arrow foreshafts 6-10” long, diameters 3/16” – 3/8”, some with notches for stone points. Wooden “atlatl javelin” foreshafts also found, one 7.5” long, 1/2” diam. with stone head cemented in with gum.

Distal end of atlatl, wood, flat, integral hook and groove. Bone or antler hook, shaped like end of flat atlatl with integral hook but no groove, hole for attaching, “a detachable device which would convert any stick of appropriate size into an atlatl.” Proximal end of atlatl, with two finger notches each side, heavy form for casting javelins. Proximal end of atlatl with single notch each side, light form for casting arrows. No apparent loops on either. [I don’t find his interpretation of flared arrow nocks as intended for use with atlatl very convincing, but the idea of light and heavy atlatls and projectiles is worth considering. No information on weights that would help evaluation is provided. Kellar (1955) points out that this is apparently the only place where SW forms overlap with SE antler hook forms.]

Five complete, fifteen fragments of grooved “rabbit stick” type clubs.

Mason, J. Alden

1928 Some Unusual Spear Throwers of Ancient America. The Museum Journal 19:290-324. University of Pennsylvania University Museum.

Older than bows, back to Paleolithic. Lengthens arm for greater speed and force. Requires only one hand so useful in boats or with shield.

Describes specimens at U. Penn Museum:

Thule Culture, Point Barrow, Alaska - coniferous drift wood, odd angular shape, with hand grip and hole for index finger, male hook of ivory inset into groove, rigid, no weights, 14.5 inches long, 2.75 wide.

Basket Makers of Utah - specimen from Chicago Exposition, probably collected by Wetherills in Grand Gulch - split sapling, .75-1 inch wide, 25 inches long, groove with integral "spur", handle with twin finger loops of rawhide, wrappings include carnivore tooth, cotton yarn, fur, feathers, and 4 beads revealed by x-ray, limonite nodule, flaked point bound to it.

How to pronounce.

McDavitt, Matthew

1998 Papuan Spearthrowers. The Atlatl 11(3):2.

Described briefly, photo. Female type, carved spear rest, 28-31.5 inches.

McFarling, Usha Lee

2003 Treasures from Icy Tombs. Los Angeles Times, Jan 3, 2003. Reprinted in The Cast Spring 2003: 10-11.

Melting glaciers in Yukon and elsewhere exposed things like “Otzi,” “Kwaday Dan Sinchi,” Arctic animals, artifacts. Yukon darts with blood and caribou hairs, atlatl evidence from 7,300 to 1200 years ago, then bow dominates. [No details.]

Mera, H. P.

1938 Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern New Mexico. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 51.

[Not very useful.]

Sketchy report of finds in caves in drainages in Guadalupe Mountains.

1 whole, 1 fragment atlatl.

Basketmaker type, loops missing, no evidence of weights, nock not described but looks like groove and flush hook mixed type. [Poor photo.]

Dart foreshafts with and without stone point or slot .

Merbs, Charles F.

1983 Patterns of Activity-induced Pathology in a Canadian Inuit Population. Archaeological Survey of Canada, Paper 119. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.

Reconstructing activity from skeletal arthritis and ethnography. Suggests elbow and shoulder joint damage from throwing harpoons with and without throwing board. Complicated by other activities such as hide scraping (females), bow and arrow use, and dog sled driving.

Merritt, Jim

1993 Atlatl Renaissance. Field & Stream, September 1993. Accessed 2/2002 BPS Engineering web page http://www.atlatl.com.

Account of Montana Mammoth Hunt event, focus on Bob Perkins of BPS Engineering, who has been making and selling atlatls for 7 years as his sole source of income. Says he makes “hundreds” every year. Describes his theory of atlatl weights as timing oscillation of atlatl and dart, and as silencer.

Metcalf, Harlan G.

1974 Whittlin’, Whistles, and Thingamajigs: The Pioneer Book of Nature Crafts and Recreation Arts. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg.

[This guy should get credit as one of modern atlatling’s forefathers.] Brief introduction, historical and ethnographic mentions. Considers Australian [central desert scoop woomera] form to be best type. Good photos of W. Australian throwing long spear. Kuikuru South American type recommended as easier to make [good photo]. Instructions for making simple cane spear and Kuikuru atlatl [but his are way too thick]. Recommends games, including atlatl golf. “With officially established dimensions for spears and spearthrowers of different groups and with official rules, this sport could become a popular and beneficial interscholastic and intercollegiate athletic event.” Can use atlatl for fishing.

Cordage, basketry, slings, bow and arrow and other things also covered.

Metcalf, Harold

2002 Ancient Spear Slings in Brazil. The Cast Spring 2002: 18.

Wauru’ and Karaya tribes, mostly sport and ritual now. Photos: hour-glass form handle with index finger hole, on rod, with lashed on hook, feather decoration. 22-24 inches long.

Metreaux, Alfred

1949 Weapons. In Handbook of South American Indians, vol 5, Julian H. Steward, editor, pp. 229-263. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 43. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.

Survey of types and distributions of bow, arrows, pellet bow, blowgun, sling, bola, club, axe, dagger, spear, shield, and spear thrower.

Spear throwers known in Peru from Inca and earlier. All South American spear throwers belong to male type. Three main categories known: 1) Ancient Peru and Ecuador, 15-24 inches, lashed on hook in groove, second hook at handle for index finger grip. Hooks of stone, bone, shell, copper in effigy forms. Similar in Argentina. Taino had similar: fish bone hook, braided loop at handle. Jivaro: straight stick with lashed on hook. 2) Round wooden stick with handle widened to allow hole for forefinger, attached hook. Ancient Peru, modern Caraja and Xingu River tribes. ‘Amazonian ‘ type. Among Xingu, displaced by bow, but still used in games and dances. Upper Amazon versions seem to be thick boards with pit for forefinger or split bamboo, used for war and turtle hunting. 3) Tapering piece of wood with deep groove, horizontal peg hook attached to narrow end. One specimen, 17^th C E Brazil. Mouth of Rio Plata probably southern limit of spear thrower. [No useful illustrations of any of this.]

Mildner, MP

1974 Descriptive and Distributional Notes on Atlatls and Atlatl Weights in the Great Basin. In Great Basin Atlatl Studies, R.F. Heizer, ed., pp 7‑28. Ramona: Ballena Press.

[Good compilation of Great Basin atlatls with references, although some descriptions incomplete.] Atlatl weights also described. Considerable variability in forms, but many related to SW atlatls with “mixed” form of integral hook, often with groove. Also forms with attached “male” hooks. [He seems confused about “female” form of atlatl.]

Roaring Springs I, Oregon: integral male hook, 2 finger notches, apparently no loops, 70.5 cm long, max W 7.2 cm., red ochre paint.

Roaring Springs II: integral male hook, 2 finger notches, apparently no loops, 57.2 cm long, max W 5.0 cm, max T 1.6 cm., red ochre and white dots.

Plush Cave, Oregon: integral hook and groove, finger notches, lacking loops, 54.5 cm long, max W 2.3 cm, max T 2.1 cm.

Lovelock Cave, Nevada: groove, missing hook (maybe attached type), finger notches, but unusual grip, 45 cm long, max W 4 cm. Similar to Potter Creek Cave atlatl. Also 3 fragments, all “mixed” type.

Lake Winnemucca, Nevada (Harrington 1959, Hester 1974): grooved and notched for attached hook, finger notches with leather loops, antler flaker on proximal end, 56 cm long, max W 2.5 cm, max T 1.25 cm.

Lake Winnemucca, Nevada (Hester 1974): male attached bone hook, unnotched grip, 58.1 cm long, attached large boat shaped stone weight.

Hogup Cave, Utah (Dalley and Peterson 1970): integral hook and groove, single finger loop of rawhide, 56.5 cm long, max W 3.5 cm, max T .45 cm, attached stone weight. Also 3 fragments, apparently mixed type with finger notches.

Council Hall Cave, Nevada (Hester and Mildner 1974): flush integral spurs with groove [he calls it female, but it’s not.]

Kramer Cave, Nevada: (also at Lake Winnemucca), groove with raised integral hook, flattened spatulate form with two sticks bound along side the proximal half, [he thinks might have supported dart, I don’t see from his picture how that would have been possible, they’re just to strengthen or stiffen.] Missing handle of proximal end, 38.1 cm long, max W 2.0 cm, max T 1.1 cm. Associated with contracting stem point and several foreshafts, one 59.0 cm long, dated C14 to 3, 720 + 100 B.P.

Last Supper Cave, Nevada: groove and flush integral hook, missing grip, notched to attach weight.

Miller, Doug

2002 Copper Tipped Darts. The Atlatl 15(3):1-2.

Old Copper Culture points from Midwest, probably used because more durable than stone. Two major styles: flat, shaped like stone points [with tang or notches] and conical (most common). Conical easier to make, protects end of shaft.

Miller, Michael J.

2000 A Study of Lithic Biface Manufacturing Traces in the MacCorkle Bifurcate Tradition of Ohio: Investigation into the Atlatl and Dart System. Unpublished paper for N. Kardulias class at Wooster College, available on net http://pages.wooster.edu/millermj/is/index.htm (Jan 2001)

Replicated MacCorkle points, tried deer hunt with atlatl, [limited experiments, rather vague conclusions]. Notes presence of “impact beveling” – beveled edges created or maintained by dart spin as strikes earth.

Moore, Clarence B.

1916 Some Aboriginal Sites on Green River, Kentucky. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 16: 431-509.

Reports on burials from "The Indian Knoll" and other sites.

Most attention to antler hooks and bannerstones, interpreted tentatively as "netting needles and mesh spacers", experiment shows they work.

Atlatl theory considered, but: 1) no definite evidence of atlatls in area

2) atlatl should be one-piece for strength, 3) no points associated [not

true, he reports lots of points from burials, including antler point in bone]

4) some crooked or have too small a hole, 5) if hooks are atlatl hooks, what

are the stone "spacers" that are found with them for?

Full scale photos and plates of hooks and bannerstones, [but no burial photos showing position of atlatl parts.]

Shell weight described [but not recognized as similar to bannerstones.]

Moorehead, Warren King

1899 The Bird-Stone Ceremonial: Being an Account of some Singular Prehistoric Artifacts Found in the United States and Canada. Allen I. Vosburgh, Saranac Lake. (reprinted 2003 by The Relic Room and Knife Shop, Pigeon Forge).

Pamphlet, 31 pages, apparently aimed at collectors. Describes and illustrates some specimens, speculates on distribution and assumes a ritual or decorative function. [Not very useful even in 1899.]

Moorehead, Warren K.

1910 The Stone Age in North America, Vol 1. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston and New York.

A large section on bannerstones and related forms, referred to as “problematical forms,” “winged objects,” and the like. Photos of unfinished specimens. Evidence that some were worn as pendants or gorgets. Not shuttles because “It has always seemed to me ridiculous to claim that the prehistoric peoples made use of objects, on which a great deal of time and hard labor were spent, for ordinary purposes.” (410) Rare in burials and mounds, probably earlier than mounds. Probably used by shamans.

Morwood, M. J.

2002 Visions from the Past: The Archaeology of Australian Aboriginal Art. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D. C.

p. 164 illustrations of chronology of weapons in rock art, statement that prehistory of spears and throwers is known only from rock art. [Illustrations show a “spade-handled” woomera unlike anything I have ever seen.]

Mountford, C. P.

1941 An Unrecorded Method of Manufacturing Wooden Implements with Stone Tools. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 65:312-326.

Pitjendadjara manufacture of woomera type atlatl using the adze stone which is often attached to the handle with gum. Stages: A. Cutting and splitting rough slab from living mulga (Acacia) tree, using local stones with natural sharp edges, and wooden wedges. The main stone was gneiss, weighed 7 lbs, abandoned after use. Took a couple hours, several men participated. B. Shaping and finishing. Removed bark and heartwood, using smaller unflaked stones (gneiss, 3 lbs), leaving it roughly finished. Then smoothed and flaked with adze stone in spear thrower handle, held and 30 degree angle and used with planing or scraping stroke, sometimes chopping. Adze stone retouched several times by “tapping with wooden blade of a spear to remove miniature flakes” while held in palm. Adze stone set into mass of spinifex gum with 1/8-3/16 “ of edge projecting. Any flake of suitable size with a cutting edge, natural or knapped. Often stored in owner’s hair! “Throwing peg” attached with gum and sinew, at about 30 degree angle. Whole spear-thrower rubbed with red ochre. Total time, 3-4 hours. [Diagrams and photos of process.]

Most important tool in their sparse material culture: serves as spear-thrower, cutting tool, small dish, firemaking friction saw.

Movius, Hallam L.

1950 A Wooden Spear of Third Interglacial Age from Lower Saxony. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6(2): 139-142.

Summarizes German info. Site at Lehringen, valley of Aller River near Verden, in marls of mild interglacial climate. Yew spear, 2.40m long, tip sharpened and fire-hardened, found between ribs of extinct straight-tusked elephant. Also a few stone flakes. Pygmies hunt by spearing elephant and following until it dies; this could be similar. [Drawing of spear only, no details or photo of association with the elephant, or of workmanship – everyone accepts, but I wonder… For instance, why no other reported organic preservation?]

Munger, Lynn

[This paper is probably why we use term "atlatl"].

Surveys Mesoamerican evidence: codices, sculpture, 3 specimens, Spanish chronicles. Small drawings from Aztec depictions.

Aztec myth: Given by Huitzilopochtli, or invented during Aztecs’ wanderings = perhaps required for aquatic hunting on lakes in Valley of Mexico.

Briefly summarizes Spanish accounts - most atlatl descriptions vague.

Linguistics - sorting out old Spanish terms and mistakes, "Atlatl" relates to verb "tlaca", to throw, aim, cast. But originally used by fishermen (=atlacatl: atl=water, tlacatl=men) - Atlatl synthesizes atl=water + tlatlacani=thrower, so atlatl = water thrower.

Usually depicted with spear and shield, which allows identification of stylized forms.

IDs types: I1)one finger hole; I2) two or 3 holes; I3) 2 side loops or attached rings; II) opposed lateral finger pegs. [She probably should add type III - simple grip handle, which seems to be shown in a few cases.]

Extant specimens: British Museum, London, and Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin - not described, and Museum Kircheriana, Rome: grip rings missing, hardwood, groove and spur, 56 cm L, 19-37 mm W, carved ornament including serpents (on other 2 also), gilded.

Symbolism: Huitzilopochtli depicted with blue serpent atlatl (Xiuatlatl or Xiucoatal) - turquoise ornamented atlatls in chronicles. Also with Xiutecuhtli, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. Ceremonial atlatls depicted like bishop's crozier, associated with lightning.

So associated with all important gods, war, serpents and lightning.

Nelson, Edward William

1899 The Eskimo About Bering Strait. 18^th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for 1897-98, pp. 19-526. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Expedition to Western coast of Alaska 1877-1881, collected some 10,000 specimens, herein described, covering most of material culture. Still using some stone tools as well as metal, shows “flint flakers” [pressure], but no description of knapping. Drilling holes and friction fire using bow drill. Bow and arrow, sling, throwing board, and bolas all used. Seal spears 4-4.5 feet long, often fletched, barbed head attached to shaft by cord for drag, used with throwing board. Walrus and whale spears are about same length but heavier, unfletched, attached by cord to a float board or skin float for drag, more likely to have a toggling harpoon head. Bird spears are lighter, sometimes fletched, with two or three bone points. The “throwing sticks” have tapering shape with paddle handle, depressions and pegs for finger grips, sometimes a forefinger hole, groove with ivory peg hook. [Small photo shows 11 examples, similar but variable]. “The Eskimo are very expert in casting spears with the throwing stick. The small light spears used in hunting seals are cast from 30 to 50 yards with considerable accuracy and force.” Practice “by the hour” at young waterfowl, very accurate. Bird spears generally cast overhand but sometimes with underhand throw to skim the water surface. “In using the throwing stick for casting the spear in a curve through the air by an overhand motion, the throwing stick is held pointing backward; the end of the spear shaft is laid in the groove on its upper surface resting against the ivory pin or other crosspiece, the shaft of the spear crosses the fingers and is held in position with the thumb and forefinger around the throwing stick.” Variants described for peg grips. Length is point of right elbow to tip of outstretched forefinger, or for whale, plus one forefinger width. Seal spear length is three times elbow to finger tip plus 2 left thumb widths plus width of left hand.

Bows are sinew backed. Muzzle loading guns becoming common.

Oberg, Chris

2000 Atlatl Darts made with Gold Tip 75-95 Carbon Fiber Tube. The Cast Fall/Winter 2000:17-18.

Detailed instructions for light, durable but complex takedown dart. Weighs 2.25-2.75 oz (70-86 gm), about 66 inches long (168 cm), balanced at 31-38%.

Oberg, Chris

2001 New Guinea Spear Thrower. The Cast Spring 2001:6.

Short summary with pictures: bamboo thrower with female nock, used with long wooden pointed unfletched darts. [No references]

Oberg, Chris

2001 Darts for Carp. The Cast Spring 2001:7.

Carp with spear or bow legal in Michigan. Recommends practice on water filled plastic bottles in lake until refraction learned. Line on end of dart eliminates need for fletching, barbed point can detach with line also.

Oberg, Chris

2002 Woven Finger Loops: Why Knot? The Cast. Spring 2002: 17.

How to make woven string loop. [But no info on attaching it to atlatl].

Oberg, Chris

2003 Home Grown Darts for Pleasure or Profit. The Cast. Spring 2003:17.

Arundo donax, “Giant Reed,” imported ornamental grass from Mediterranean and far East is easy to grow in wide range of conditions.

2003 The Remarkable History of Michigan Copper. The Cast Spring 2003: 16.

Brief background, photos of making Old Copper dart point from copper wire.

Ortner, Donald J.

1968 Description and classification of degenerative bone changes in the distal joint surfaces of the humerus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 28:139-156.

Describes arthritic changes to the capitulum of the humerus where it articulates with the head of the radius in both flexing and rotating at the elbow. He calls this “atlatl elbow” throughout. Compares Peruvian and Eskimo skeletal remains, and finds higher frequency of elbow arthritis in Eskimo, but he is not arguing that it is caused specifically by atlatl use, just that the symptoms of “atlatl elbow” are probably caused by stressful use of the arm.

Osgood, Cornelius

1940 Ingalik Material Culture. Yale University Publications in Anthropology Number 21. Reprinted 1970, Human Relations Area Files Press, New Haven.

Inland S. Alaska Athapaskan (not Eskimo) groups on the Yukon River. Principle informant Billy Williams born 1884. [Complete entry p.201, atlatl apparently no longer used by 1939.] :

“Spear Thrower and Darts: te lakoi, water/to throw. The name apparently comes from the fact that the spear thrower is commonly used from a canoe on the water. [Fascinating parallel with atlatl, see Nuttall]. Men make spear throwers out of spruce wood, birch wood, or bone. My informant recognized illustrations in Nelson’s monograph on the Bering Sea Eskimo as being typical of those formerly used among the Ingalik. Darts associated with the thrower were also recognized. Darts are said never to be feathered nor to have points attached in the center of the shaft [like Bering bird darts]. The spear thrower and darts are used only for hunting ducks.”

Bows and arrows had more use. Bows apparently not sinew backed. Fire drill usually with a cord, rarely with bow.

Oswalt, Wendell

1972 The Eskimos (Yuk) of Western Alaska. In Modern Alaskan Native Material Culture, edited by W. Oswalt, pp. 73-95. University of Alaska Museum.

One of a group of surveys of culture change in artifacts in 1970-71. Most other groups mention apparently not using throwing boards any more, but here: “It is something of a surprise that sealing and whaling harpoons based on aboriginal models continue to be important hunting weapons. Sealing harpoons have either a toggling head of a barbed head. In both instances the head is made from a solid piece of copper, brass, or aluminum which is hacksawed into rough form and filed into final form.” Foreshaft is a nail, shaft is cedar with modern paint, head is attached with cotton or nylon cord. “These weapons are always propelled with the aid of a throwing board, which usually has a wooden peg and is painted with a commercial paint.” Beluga whaling harpoons heavier, hand thrown. Harpoon still needed because shot seals sink, so they are harpooned and then shot, or if beyond harpoon range, shot and then harpooned as soon as possible. [Although the collections made in this project include throwing boards from several villages, there is no full description and no illustrations of any of the objects, which greatly lessens the value of this publication.]

Pafford, John

2002 Back to Iowa After 65 Years. Prehistoric American 36(2):31-34.

Six large ferruginous quartz butterfly bannerstones found in field by workers in 1930’s, acquired by Ben Nussbaum. [“Nussbaum Cache” – but who knows if they were actually together, or what information was destroyed by finders or circumstances.] Full size color photos.

Palmer, Jay W.

2001 A Basketmaker II Massacre Revisited. North American Archaeologist 22(2):117-141.

Wetherill’s Cave 7 site in SE Utah (see Hurst and Turner 1993). Ninety-six Basketmaker (ca 500 BC to AD 400) people killed with bone daggers, clubs, atlatl darts. Victims were Proto-Kiowa in conflict with recently arrived Penutian/Hokan/Dineh who later became Proto-Zuni. The killers are so identified in part by use of clubs and bow and arrow. [This is all a tenuous tissue of speculation based on very complex and problematic genetic and linguistic reconstructions. There are also problems with his understanding of Basketmaker in general, and with artifact information. In particular he considers some unnotched bifaces to be adzes used as weapons, and accepts the 19^th century identification of two of the points in wounds as arrow points, which they almost certainly are not.] The site is notable for atlatl use in warfare, including one obsidian point reported to have “pinned the hip bones together” on one corpse [unlikely to be a knife as he assumes.]

Palter, John L.

1976 A New Approach to the Significance of the "Weighted" Spear Thrower. American Antiquity 41(4): 500-510.

No ethnographic weights, prehistoric North America only.

Tests contradictory, his show distance decreases with heavier weight.

Balance hypothesis: not necessary unless spear were heavy, why just N.A.?

Weighted Basketmaker atlatls flat and flexible - Weight would augment flexibility. [Similar to theories of Perkins and Leininger 1989, Hayes 1994]

Prehistoric specimens mostly less than 80 grams, rest may be non-functional.

Palter, John L.

1977 Design and Construction of Australian Spear-Thrower Projectiles and Hand-Thrown Spears. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania 12(3):161-172.

Ethnographic specimens: 33 hand-thrown and 293 spear thrower spears [unfortunately not illustrated].

Hypothesized

Akerman, Kim, Richard Fullager, and Annelou van Gijn x

Arutiunov, S. A. and William W. Fitzhugh

Baugh, Dick o

Baugh, Dick o

Baugh, Dick

Baugh, Dick

Berg, Bob

Berg, Bob

Berg, Bob

Bergman, Christopher A. and Edward McEwen o

Bergman, C. A., E. McEwen, and R. Miller

Berndt, R. M. and C. Berndt s

Boas, Franz

Bostrom, Pete

Bradley, Bruce o

Brokensha, Peter

Brown, James

Bruchert, Lorenz

Cabaraux, Anne-Francoise

Cahill, Tim

Cattelain, Pierre and Claire Bellier

Cattelain, Pierre, and Rieu, Jean-Luc

Coulam, Nancy J. and Alan R. Schroedl o

Cressman, Luther S. x

Darwin, Charles

DeBoer, Warren

Demoulin, Emmanuel

Dold, Catherine o

Drake, David and Jim Kjelgaard

Dunham, Mike

Dutour, Olivier

Edgar, Blake

Environment Canada

Fenenga, Franklin

Fenenga, Franklin, and Robert F. Heizer

Foley, Vernard, George Palmer, and Werner Soedel

Friis-Hansen, Jan

Geiselman, Kevin

Gramly, Richard Michael

Hamm, Jim o

Hassig, Ross

Hayden, Brian

Heath, E. G. and Vilma Chiara

Hermann, Ferdinand

Holm, Bill

Holmes, William Henry

Holmes, William Henry

Hranicky, Wm Jack

Hranicky, Wm Jack

Hrdlicka, Daryl

Hrdlicka, Daryl

Hrdlicka, Daryl

Janetski, Joel C., and Michael J. Hall

Junkmanns, Jurgen

Kjelgaard, Jim

Kleiner, Kurt

Korfmann, Manfred

Kortlandt, Adriaan

McFarling, Usha Lee

Merritt, Jim

Metcalf, Harold

Metreaux, Alfred

Moorehead, Warren King

Murdoch, John

Nelson, Edward William

Oberg, Chris

Oberg, Chris

Osgood, Cornelius

Oswalt, Wendell

Pafford, John